Pressure Measurement and Calibration

52 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT AND CALIBRATION (TH2) 53 EQUIPMENT DIAGRAMS 54 55 56 EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION Refer to the drawing on pages 56, 57 and 58. This equipment is a bench top unit designed to introduce students to pressure, pressure scales and common devices available to measure pressure. The equipment comprises a Dead-weight Pressure Calibrator to generate a number of predetermined pressures, connected to a Bourdon gauge and electronic pressure sensor to allow their characteristics, including accuracy and linearity, to be determined. The Dead-weight Pressure Calibrator, Bourdon gauge and pressure sensor are mounted on a common PVC base plate. The electrical console is free standing. The Dead-weight Pressure Calibrator consists of precision ground piston (10) and matching cylinder (11) with a set of weights (12). In normal use the appropriate combination of weights is applied to the top of the piston, to generate the required predetermined pressure, and then the piston is set spinning, to reduce vertical friction, while the readings from the measuring devices are recorded. The operating range of the Dead-weight Pressure Calibrator and instrumentation is 20 kNm-2 to 200 kNm-2. The Bourdon gauge (5) and pressure sensor (6) are mounted on a manifold block (2) with a priming vessel (4) to contain the hydraulic fluid which is chosen to be water for safety and ease of use. A priming valve (7) between the reservoir and the manifold block allows the cylinder, manifold block and gauge on test to be easily primed with the water ready for use. A damping valve (8) between the cylinder and the manifold block allow the flow f water to be restricted to demonstrate the application of damping. An additional isolating valve (9) on the manifold block allows water to be drained from the manifold block or allows alternative devices to be connected for calibration. Such devices can be tested over the range 20 kNm-2 to 200 kNm-2. The Bourdon gauge (5) supplied is a traditional industrial instrument with rotary scale and mechanical indicator. The gauge has a 6† diameter dial that incorporates an arbitrary scale calibrated in degrees of rotation (independent of unit pressure) in addition to the usual scale calibrated in units of kNm-2. A clear acrylic front face allows observation of the Bourdon tube the mechanism that converts motion of the Bourdon tube to rotation of the indicator needle. The electronic pressure sensor (6) supplied incorporates a semi-conductor diaphragm that deflects when pressure is applied by the working fluid. This deflection generates a voltage output that is proportional to the applied pressure. The pressure sensor should be connected to the socket (20) marked ‘Pressure Sensor’ on the front of the console. The power supply, signal conditioning circuitry etc are contained in a simple electrical console (15) with appropriate current protection devices and an RCD (26) for operator protection. The electrical console is designed to stand alongside the Dead-weight Pressure Calibrator on the bench top. All circuits inside the console are operated by a main on/off switch (16) on the front of the console. 57 The various circuits inside the console are protected against excessive current by miniature circuit breakers, as follows: CONT (27) O/P (28) This breaker protects the power supply and circuits inside the console. This breaker protects the electrical output marked OUTPUT (23) at the rear of the console. The socket is used to power the IFD3 interface used for data logging. The voltage from the pressure sensor is displayed on a digital meter (17) on the electrical console. An additional conditioning circuit incorporates zero and span adjustments and allows the voltage output from the pressure sensor to be converted and displayed as a direct reading pressure meter calibrated in units of pressure. The zero control (21) and span control (22) are mounted on the front of the console for ease of use. A selector switch (18) allows the voltage from the sensor or the direct reading pressure reading to be displayed as required. The voltage from the pressure sensor is simultaneously connected to an I/O Port (19) for the connection to a PC using an optional interface device (TH-IFD) with educational software package (TH2-303). Alternatively, the signal can be connected to a user supplied chart recorder if required. Before use, the priming vessel must be filled with clean water (preferably deionized or demineralised water) and the calibrator, Bourdon gauge and pressure sensor fully primed. 8 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES This equipment has been designed to operate over a range of pressures from 0 kN/m2 to 200 kN/m2 may damage the pressure sensors. In order to avoid such damage, DO NOT APPLY CONTINUOUS PRESSURE TO THE TOP OF THE PISTON ROD WHEN THE PRIMING VALVE IS CLOSED except by the application of the masses supplied. An impulse may be applied to the piston when operating at a fluid pressure of less than 200 kN/m2. This procedure is described in Experiment P1. The following procedure should be followed to prime the Dead-weight Calibrator and pressure sensors, prior to taking readings: Level the apparatus using the adjustable feet. A circular spirit level has been provided for this purpose, mounted on the base of the dead-weight calibrator. Check that the drain valve (at the back of the Bourdon gauge base) is closed. Fill the priming vessel with water (purified or de-ionized water is preferable). Open the damping valve and the priming valve. With no masses on the piston, slowly draw the piston upwards a distance of approximately 6 cm (i. . a full stroke of the piston). This draws water from the priming vessel into the system. Firmly drive the piston downwards, to expel air from the cylinder back towards the priming vessel. Repeat these two steps until no more bubbles are visible in the system. It may be helpful to raise the central section of the return tube between the manifold block and the priming vessel. This will help to prevent air be ing drawn back into the system as the piston is raised. Raise the piston close to the top of the cylinder, taking care not to lift it high enough to allow ir to enter, and then close the priming valve. The following procedure describes the calibration of the semiconductor pressure sensor. The procedure differs if using the optional TH-303 software, in which case users should instead refer to the Help Text provided with the software. Remove the piston from the cylinder, and switch the selector knob on the console to ‘Pressure’. This the ‘zero’ control on the console until the display reads zero. This sets the first reference point for the sensor calibration. Return the piston to the cylinder, and reprime the system as described above. Place all the supplied masses onto the piston, with the greatest mass (2 ? kg) being added last. This corresponds to an applied pressure of 200 kN/m2. Spin the piston, and adjust the ‘span’ control until the sensor output matches the applied pressure. This sets the second reference point for the calibration. 59 The calibration may be tested by applying a mass to the piston, spinning the piston in the cylinder, and then comparing the applied pressure to the sensor output. Each ? kg of applied mass corresponds to 20 kN/m2 of applied pressure. This piston itself gives an applied pressure of 20 kN/m2. 0 NOMENCLATURE FOR TH2 The following nomenclature has been used for the theory and calculations presented in this manual: Name Piston diameter Cross-sectional area Mass of piston Mass on mass piston Applied mass Acceleration due to gravity Applied force Nom d A Mp Mm Ma g F Units m m? kg kg kg m/s2 kg Type Given Calculated Given Recorded Calculated Given Recorded Definition The diameter of the dead weight calibrator piston. Cross-sectional area of dead weight calibrator cylinder. Mass of the dead-weight calibrator piston. Mass applied to piston. Ma = Mp + Mm g = 9. 1 m/s2 Force applied to fluid in system by piston and masses. F = g x Ma Pressure applied to fluid by dead weight calibrator P = F/A Ambient (atmospheric) pressure of the surroundings. Applied pressure relative to the pressure of total vacuum Needle angle taken from Bourdon gauge scale Semiconductor output taken from console display Gauge pressure taken from Bourdon gauge scale Calibrated semiconductor output taken from console display Applied pressure Barometric pressure Absolute pressure Needle angle Semi-conductor output Indicated Bourdon gauge pressure Indicated semi-conductor pressure Pa Patm Pabs ? e Pb Ps N/m2 N/m2 N/m2 Calculated Recorded Calculated degree Recorded V N/m2 N/m2 Recorded Recorded Recorded 61 NOMENCLATURE FOR ERROR ANALYSIS The following nomenclature has been used for the error analysis presented in this manual: Name Indicated value Actual value Range Definition Gauge reading, i. e. the pressure indicated by sensor used True pressure, pressure applied by dead-weight calibrator Total range of values covered in the results, or total range of values measurable on instrument scale. Calculation Pi = Pb or Ps, depending on the sensor used Actual value = Applied pressure, Pa Range = Largest result – Smallest result = Pi max – Pi min or Range = Maximum possible reading – Minimum possible reading (200 kN/m? for apparatus used) No calculation. Precise data have a small scatter, indicating minimal random error ea = |Pi – Pa | ea max = ? (Pi – Pa)max? e%a = ea max X 100 Pa e%f = ea max X 100 Range Pmin = P1 + P2 + †¦.. + Pn n da = |Pi – Pmin| dm = da1 + da2 + †¦ + dan n ? = da12 + da32 + †¦ + dan2 n-1 ? Precision How closely the results agree with each other. Actual difference Modulus of the difference between indicated value and actual value Accuracy Maximum difference between indicated pressure and actual pressure Percentage accuracy Greatest difference between of actual scale reading indicated pressure and actual pressure, as a percentage of the actual pressure. Percentage accuracy Greatest difference between of full-scale reading indicated pressure and actual pressure, as a percentage of the range. Mean Sum of results divided by number of results. Absolute deviation Difference between a single result and the mean of several results Mean deviation Sum of the absolute deviations divided by the number of absolute deviations Standard deviation Commonly used value in analysis of statistical data 62 DATA SHEET 7 RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE PRESSURE The measurement of any physical property relies upon comparison with some fixed reference point. Pressure is one such property, and pressure measurement must begin by defining a suitable fixed point. An obvious reference point is that of the ambient pressure of the surroundings. Pressure scales have been based around a zero point of the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level. Pressures lower than atmospheric are assigned negative values; pressures higher than atmospheric have positive values. Gauges for measuring pressure give readings relative to this zero point, by comparing the pressure of interest to the pressure of the surrounding air. Pressure measured with such a gauge is given relative to a fixed value, and is sometimes termed gauge pressure. Gauge measure pressure difference between the pressure to be measured and the barometric (ambient) pressure. This may then need adjusting, to take into account any difference between barometric pressure and the pressure at sea level. Many calculations using equations derived from fundamental physical laws require absolute pressure values. Absolute pressure is the pressure relative to a total absence of pressure (i. e. a total vacuum). On an absolute pressure scale, all pressures have a positive value. The following chart illustrates the difference between gauge pressure, barometric pressure, and absolute pressure. 63 DATA SHEET 8 TECHNICAL DATA The following information may be of use when using this apparatus: Operating range of dead-weight pressure calibrator Diameter of dead-weight calibrator piston Cross-sectional calibrator area of dead-weight 20 kN/m2 – 200 kN/m2 0. 017655 m 0. 000245 m2 20 kN/m2 150 mL Pressure produced in cylinder by mass of piston with no applied masses Approximate capacity of priming vessel 64 EXPERIMENT P1 CONCEPTS OF PRESSURE AND PRESSURE SENSOR BEHAVIOUR OBJECTIVE To gain a basic understanding of the concept of pressure and its measurement. To investigate the behavior of two kinds of pressure sensor, and the effect of damping on pressure measurement. †¢ To gain a basic understanding of the concept of pressure and its measurement. †¢ To investigate the behaviour of two kinds of pressure sensor †¢ To observe the effect of damping on pressure measurement METHOD To investigate the response of two kinds of pressure sensor to a pressure applied by a dead-weight calibrator device. To investigate the response of these sensors to the application of a sudden pressure spike, with varying levels of restriction of the liquid between the pressure application and the sensor. THEORY Pressure is the force exerted by a medium, such as a fluid, on an area. In the TH2 apparatus, pressure is exerted by a piston on a column of water. The pressure applied is then equal to the force exerted by the piston over the cross-sectional area of the fluid. The use of the piston and masses with the cylinder generates a measurable reference pressure, Pa: Pa = Fa A 65 where Fa = gMa, and Fa = force applied to the liquid, Ma = total mass (incl. piston), and A = area of piston. The area of the piston can be expressed in terms of its diameter, d, as: A = ? d2 4 The units of each variable must agree for the equations to be valid. Using SI units, Pa will be in Newtons per square metre (N/m? , also known as Pascals) if Fa is in Newtons, A is in square metres, and d is in metres. The use of specific units of pressure will be covered in exercise B. For this exercise the area of the cylinder is a constant. The pressure can therefore be considered directly proportional to the mass applied to the mass on the piston Pressure measurement is normally concerned with measuring the effects of a pressure differential between two points in a fluid. The simplest form of pressure sensor is a manometer tube, in which a tube of fluid is exposed at one end to the first point in the fluid, and at the other to the second point. Any pressure differential causes a displacement of fluid within the tube, which is proportional to the difference. Manometers (not included with the TH2 apparatus) are cheap, simple, and can be designed to cover a wide range of pressures. However, they are best used for measuring static pressures below about 600 kN/m? , as the required height of the fluid becomes unworkable at greater pressures. Their dynamic response is poor, so they are best suited to measuring static or slowly changing pressures. Some fluids used are toxic (such as mercury), and may be susceptible to temperature change. The Bourdon-type pressure gauge consists of a curved tube of oval cross-section. One end is closed, and is left free to move. The other end is left open to allow fluid to enter, and is fixed. The outside of the tube remains at ambient pressure. When fluid pressure inside the tube exceeds the pressure outside the tube, the section of the tube tends to 66 ecome circular, causing the tube to straighten (internal pressure lower than the ambient pressure conversely causes increased flattening, and the curve of the tube increases). A simple mechanical linkage transmits the movement of the free end of the tube to a pointer moving around dial. This type of gauge is one of the two kinds included in the TH2 apparatus. The second type of pressure gauge included as part of the TH2 is an electromechani cal device. In a basic semiconductor pressure sensor, silicon strain gauges are fixed to one side of a diaphragm. The two sides of the diaphragm are exposed to the two different pressures. Any pressure differential causes the diaphragm to expand towards the lower-pressure side, producing a change in the strain gauge voltage reading. The electronic semiconductor pressure sensor included with the TH2 is a more refined device with improved reliability and sensitivity for pressure measurement. It includes temperature compensation to reduce the effects of temperature variation on the results. The strain gauges used are formed by laying down a protective film of glass onto stainless steel, followed by a thin film of silicon. The silicon is doped to produce semiconductor properties, and a mask is photoprinted onto it. The unmasked silicon is then removed, leaving a pattern of silicon semiconductor strain gauges molecularly bonded onto the surface of the steel. The gauges are connected to an Ohmmeter through a Wheatstone bridge, to amplify the signal produced. 67 In this type of sensor, a diaphragm is still used, but instead of fixing the strain gauges to the surface, the deflection of the diaphragm moves a steel force rod. This transfers the force to one end of the steel strip that the semiconductor resistors are bonded to. The resulting deflection of the strip causes compression in some strain gauges, and tension in others, changing their resistance and producing a measurable output. Both the TH2 pressure sensors are set up to indicate the pressure differential between atmospheric pressure, and fluid pressurized with the use of the dead-weight calibrator. The fluid passes through a damping valve, positioned between the calibrator and the sensors. By partially closing the valve, fluid flow can be restricted. This affects the speed at which pressure is transferred from the point of application to the sensors. EQUIPMENT SET UP Level the apparatus using the adjustable feet. A circular spirit level has been provided for this purpose, mounted on the base of the dead-weight calibrator. Check that the drain valve (at the back of the Bourdon gauge base) is closed. Fill the priming vessel with water (purified or de-ionized water is preferable). Fully open the damping valve and the priming valve With no masses on the piston, slowly draw the piston upwards a distance of approximately 6cm (i. e. a full stroke of the piston). This draws water from the priming vessel into the system. Firmly drive the piston downwards, to expel air from the cylinder back towards the priming vessel. Repeat these two steps until no more bubbles are visible in the system. It may be helpful to raise the central section of the return tube between the manifold block and 68 the priming vessel. This will help to prevent air being drawn back into the system as the piston is raised. Raise the piston close to the top of the cylinder, taking care not to lift it high enough to allow air to enter, and then close the priming valve. PROCEDURE This equipment has been designed to operate over a range of pressure from 0 kN/m2 to 200 kN/m2. Exceeding a pressure of 200 kN/m2 may damage the pressure sensors. In order to avoid such damage, DO NOT APPLY CONTINUOUS PRESSURE TO THE TOP OF THE PISTON ROD WHEN THE PRIMING VALVE IS CLOSED except by application of the mass supplied. An impulse may be applied to the piston when operating at a fluid pressure of less than 200 kN/m2, as is described later in this procedure. Behavior of pressure sensors Spin the piston in the cylinder, to minimize friction effects between the piston and the cylinder wall. While the piston is spinning, record the angle through which the Bourdon gauge needle has moved, and the voltage output of the electronic sensor. Apply a ? kg mass to the piston. Spin the piston and take a second set of readings for the Bourdon gauge needle angle and the electronic sensor. Repeat the procedure in ? kg increments. When using several masses, it will be necessary to place the 2 ? kg mass on top of the other masses. Repeat the procedure while removing the masses again, in ? kg increments. This gives two results for each applied mass, which may be averaged in order to reduce the effects of any error in an individual reading. Effect of damping Apply a single mass to the piston, and spin it. While the piston is spinning, apply an impulse to the top of the piston by striking the top of the rod once, with the flat of the hand. Watch the behavior of the Bourdon gauge needle. Note the final sensor reading after the response settles. Slightly close the damping valve. Change the mass, spin the piston again, and apply an impulse to the rod. Observe any changes in the sensor responses. Repeat the procedure, closing the damping valve a little at a time and noting the response and the final sensor reading each time. RESULTS Tabulate your results under the following headings:- 69 Mass applied to calibrator Mm (kg) Deflection of Bourdon gauge needle (degrees) Output from electrochemical pressure sensor (mV) Notes on sensor behavior (damping) Plot a graph of sensor response against applied mass for each sensor. 70 EXPERIMENT P2 CONCEPTS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT AND CALIBRATION OBJECTIVE To convert an arbitrary scale of pressure sensor output into engineering units. To calibrate a semiconductor pressure sensor. METHOD To make use of a dead-weight calibrator in order to produce known forces in a fluid. THEORY It is recommended that students read Data Sheet 1: Relative and Absolute Pressures before proceeding with this exercise. Pressure sensor calibration Variation in a pressure sensor reading may be calibrated, using known pressures, to give a gauge reading in engineering units. From exercise A, the dead-weight calibrator used in the TH2 produces a known reference pressure by applying a mass to a column of fluid. The pressure produced is Pa = F Aa where Fa = gMa, and Fa is the force applied to the liquid in the calibrator cylinder. Ma is the total mass (including that of the piston) 71 g is the acceleration due to gravity, and A is the area of piston. The area of the piston can be expressed in terms of its diameter, d, as: A = ? d2 4 The pressure in the fluid may then be calculated in the relevant engineering units. These known pressures may then be compared to the pressure sensor outputs over a range of pressures. The relationship between sensor output and pressure may be turned into a direct scale, as on the Bourdon gauge scale. Alternatively, a reference graph may be produced. Where the relationship is linear and the sensor output is electrical, the sensor may be calibrated using simple amplifier (a conditioning circuit). When using SI units, the units of pressure are Newtons per square meter (N/m? , also known as Pascals). To calculate the pressure in N/m? , M must be in kg, d in m, and g in m / s?. For the pressure range covered in this exercise, it will be more convenient to use units of kN/m? , where 1 kN/m? = 1000 N/m? (1 N/m? = 0. 001 kN/m? ). Barometric pressure: pressure units and scale conversion Barometric pressures is usually measured in bar. One bar is equal to a force of 105 N applied over an area of 1m?. While bar and N/m? have the same scale interval, pressure in bar often has a more convenient value when measuring barometric pressure. Pressure may also be measured in millimetres of mercury (mmHg). The pressure is given in terms of the height of a column of mercury that would be required to exert an equivalent pressure to that being measured. Another possible unit of measurement is atmospheres (atm). One standard atmosphere was originally defined as being equal to the pressure at sea level at a temperature of 15 °C. A pressure unit still in everyday use is pounds per square inch (psi or lbf / in.? ). One psi is equal to a weight of one pound applied over an area of 1 in.? If a barometer is available to measure the ambient pressure in the room where the equipment is located, the barometer reading should be converted SI units. Pressures may be converted from one scale to another using a conversion factor. A list of conversion factors is provided below. 72 1 atm = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = 101. 3 x 103 101. 3 1. 013 760 14. 696 100 x 103 100 0. 987 750. 006 14. 504 133. 3 x 103 133. 3 1. 33 1. 316 19. 337 6. 895 x 106 6. 895 x 103 68. 948 68. 046 51. 715 N/m2 kN/m2 bar mmHg psi N/m2 kN/m2 atm mmHg psi N/m2 kN/m2 bar atm psi N/m2 kN/m2 bar atm mmHg 1 bar 1 mmHg x 103 1 psi x 103 ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT REQUIRED Values for the piston diameter and weight are provided. These may be replaced by your own measurements if desired. The following equipment will be required to do so: a) Vernier calli pers or a ruler, to measure the piston diameter b) A weigh-balance or similar, to measure the piston weight EQUIPMENT SET UP Carefully remove the piston from the cylinder, weigh it. Take care not to damage the piston, as it is part of a high precision instrument and any damage will affect the accuracy of the experimental results. Level the apparatus using the adjustable feet. A circular spirit level has been mounted on the base of the dead weight calibrator for this purpose. Check that the drain valve (at the back of the Bourdon gauge base) is closed. Fill the priming vessel with water (purified or de-ionized water is preferable). Open the damping valve and the priming valve. 73 With no masses on the piston, slowly draw the piston upwards a distance of approximately 6cm (i. e. full stroke of the piston). This draws water from the priming vessel into the system. Firmly drive the piston downwards, to expel air from the cylinder back towards the priming vessel. Repeat these two steps until no more bubbles are visible in the system. It may be helpful to raise the central section of the return tube between the manifold block and the priming vessel. This will help to prevent air being drawn back into the system as the piston is raised. Raise the piston close to the top of the cylinder, taking care not to lift it high enough to allow air to enter, and then close the priming valve. Set the selector switch on the console to ‘Output’. PROCEDURE This equipment has been designed to operate over a range of pressure from 0 kN/m2 to 200 kN/m2. Exceeding a pressure of 200 kN/m2 may damage the pressure sensors. In order to avoid such damage, DO NOT APPLY CONTINUOUS PRESSURE TO THE TOP OF THE PISTON ROD WHEN THE PRIMING VALVE IS CLOSED except by application of the mass supplied. Conversion of an arbitrary scale into engineering units Spin the piston to reduce the effects of friction in the cylinder. With the needle still spinning, record the angle indicated by the Bourdon gauge needle. Place a ? kg mass on the piston, and spin the piston. Record the value of the applied mass, and the angle indicated by the Bourdon gauge needle. Increase the applied mass in increment of ? kg. Spin the piston and record the needle angle each increment. Repeat the measurements while decreasing the applied mass in steps of ? kg. This gives two readings for each applied mass, which may be averaged to reduce the effect of any error in an individual reading. Calculate the applied pressure at each mass increment. Calculate the average needle angle at each pressure increment. Repeat the experiment, this time recording the applied mass and the indicated pressure on the Bourdon gauge scale. Compare this to the average needle angle recorded previously. 74 Calibration of a semiconductor pressure sensor NOTE: This procedure differs if the TH2-303 software is being used. Please refer to the online product Help Text if using this software. Spin the piston. Record the voltage indicated on the semiconductor output display on the console. Place a ? kg mass on the piston, and spin the piston. Record the applied mass, and the voltage indicated on the semiconductor output display on the console. Increase the applied mass in steps of ? kg, spinning the piston and recording the semiconductor output each time. Repeat the measurement while decreasing the applied mass in steps of ? kg. Calculate the applied pressure at each mass increment. Calculate the average sensor output at each pressure increment. Slowly open the priming valve. Open the valve to its maximum, and check that the damping valve is also fully open. The fluid in the system will now be at approximately atmospheric pressure (it will be slightly higher than atmospheric due to the height of fluid in the reservoir, but this is negligible compared to the range of the sensors). Switch the selector knob on the console to PRESSURE Turn the ZERO control on the console until the display read zero, to set the first reference point for the sensor calibration. Raise the piston close to the top of the cylinder, taking care not to lift it high enough to allow air to enter, and then close the priming valve. Place a large mass on the piston, and calculate the corresponding applied pressure. Spin the piston and adjust the SPAN control until the sensor output matches the applied pressure, to set the second reference point for the calibration. Remove the masses from the piston. Take a set of readings from the calibrated semiconductor sensor, by adding masses to the piston in ? kg increments. Repeat the reading while decreasing the applied mass. This gives two reading for each applied mass, which may be averaged in order to reduce the effect of any error in an individual reading. 75 RESULTS Tabulate your results under the following headings: Barometric pressure Mass of piston Mp Diameter of cylinder, d Cross-sectional area of cylinder, A Mass on piston Mm (kg) Applied mass Ma (kg) Applied force Fa (N) Applied pressure †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Needle angle N/m2 kg m m2 Indicated Indicated SemiBourdon conductor semiconductor pressure pressure output Pb Ps Pa E ? (mV) (N/m2) (degrees) (N/m2) (N/m2) Plot graphs of average needle angle against applied pressure for the Bourdon gauge, and voltage output against applied pressure for the semiconductor sensor. Plot a graph of indicated pressure against actual pressure for the Bourdon gauge and the calibrated semiconductor pressure sensor. If there is facility for measuring barometric pressure, it is possible to calculate the absolute pressure corresponding to each applied pressure increment. The ambient pressure of the surroundings, Patm should be measured, then converted into N/m2 (if required). An additional column should be added to the results table: Absolute Pressure, Pabs (N/m2). Absolute pressure may then be calculated as Pabs = Pa + Patm 76 EXPERIMENT P3 ERRORS IN PRESSURE MEASUREMENT OBJECTIVE To investigate the sources of error when measuring pressure. METHOD Errors in measuring a quantity, such as pressure, can come from a number of sources. Some can be eliminated by careful choice of equipment and experimental method. Other errors are unavoidable, but can be minimized. In any experiment, it is good practice to note any possible sources of error in the results, and to give an indication of the magnitude of such errors. Errors fall into three general categories: Avoidable errors These are errors that must be eliminated, as any results including such errors will often be meaningless. Such errors include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Incorrect use of equipment Incorrect recording of results Errors in calculations Chaotic errors, i. e. random disturbances, such as extreme vibration or electrical noise that are sufficient to mask the experimental results. 7 Random errors Random errors should be eliminated if possible, by changing the design of the experiment or waiting until conditions are more favorable. Even if they cannot be eliminated, many random errors may be minimized by making multiple sets of readings, and averaging the results. Random errors include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Variation of experimental conditions (e. g. changes in ambie nt temperature) Variation in instrumentation performance Variation due to material properties and design (e. g. effect of friction) Errors of judgement (e. g. nconstancy in estimating a sensor reading) Systematic errors Systematic errors produce a constant bias or skew in the results, and should be minimized where possible. They include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Built-in errors (e. g. zero error, incorrect scale graduation) Experimental errors (due to poor design of the experiment or the apparatus) Systematic human errors (e. g. reading from the wrong side of a liquid meniscus) Loading error (errors introduced as a result of the act of measurement- for example, the temperature of a probe altering the temperature of the body being measured) Errors may also be described in a number of ways: Actual difference – the difference between the indicated value (the value indicated by the gauge or sensor) and the actual scale reading (the true value of the property being measured). The actual value must be known to calculate the actual difference. Accuracy – the maximum amount by which the results vary from the actual value. The actual value must be known. Percentage accuracy of the actual scale reading – the greatest difference between the actual value and the indicated value, expressed as a percentage of the actual value. The actual value must be known. Percentage accuracy of the full-scale reading (total range of the measurement device) – the greatest difference between the actual value and the indicated value, expressed as a percentage of the maximum value of the range being used. The actual value must be known. Mean deviation (or probable error) – The absolute deviation of a single result is the difference between a single result, and the average (mean) of several results. The mean deviation is the sum of the absolute deviations divided by their number. The actual value is not required. The mean deviation is an indication of how closely the results agree with each other. 78 Standard deviation (or mean square error) – the standard deviation is the square root of the mean of the squares of the deviations (‘better’ results are obtained by dividing the sum of the values by the one less than the number of values). This is a common measure of the preciseness of a sample of data- how closely the results agree with each other. The actual value is not required. ADDITIONAL EQUIUPMENT REQUIRED Values for the piston diameter and weight are provided. These may be replaced by your own measurements if desired. The following equipment will be required to do so: †¢ †¢ Vernier callipers or a ruler, to measure the piston diameter A weigh-balance or similar, to measure the piston weight EQUIPMENT SET UP To prime the cylinder, the following procedure should be followed (where this is required in the experiment): Level the apparatus using the adjustable feet. A circular spirit level has been mounted on the base of the dead weight calibrator for this purpose. Check that the drain valve (at the back of the Bourdon gauge base) is closed. Fill the priming vessel with water (purified or de-ionized water is preferable). Fully open the damping valve and the priming valve. With no masses on the piston, slowly draw the piston upwards a distance of approximately 6cm (i. e. a full stroke of the piston). This draws water from the priming vessel into the system. Firmly drive the piston downwards, to expel air from the cylinder back towards the priming vessel. Repeat these two steps until no more bubbles are visible in the system. It may be helpful to raise the central section of the return tube between the manifold block and the priming vessel. This will help to prevent air being drawn back into the system as the piston is raised. Raise the piston close to the top of the cylinder, taking care not to lift it high enough to allow air to enter, then close the priming valve. PROCEDURE This equipment has been designed to operate over a range of pressure from 0 kN/m2 to 200 kN/m2. Exceeding a pressure of 200 kN/m2 may damage the pressure sensors. In order to avoid such damage, DO NOT APPLY CONTINUOUS PRESSURE TO THE 79 TOP OF THE PISTON ROD WHEN THE PRIMING VALVE IS CLOSED except by application of the mass supplied. The following experiments give suggested ways in which particular sources of error may be investigated. It is recommended that only one or two be attempted in a single laboratory session, with each being repeated several times, giving multiple samples for the error analysis. Basic Error Analysis: The accuracy of the semiconductor calibration may be investigated by performing standard error calculations on the calibrated sensor output, using the results obtained in Experiment P2. If results are not available for analysis, the following procedure should be followed: Slowly open the priming valve. Open the valve to its maximum, and check that the damping valve is also fully open. The fluid in the system will now be at approximately atmospheric pressure (it will be slightly higher than atmospheric due to the height of fluid in the reservoir, but this is negligible compared to the range of the sensors). Switch the selector knob on the console to PRESSURE. Turn the ZERO control on the console until the display read zero, to set the first reference point for the sensor calibration. Raise the piston close to the top of the cylinder, taking care not to lift it high enough to allow air to enter, then close the priming valve. Place a large mass on the piston, and calculate the corresponding applied pressure. Spin the piston, and adjust the SPAN control until the sensor output matches the applied pressure, to set the second reference point for the calibration. Remove the masses from the piston. Take a set of readings from the calibrated semiconductor sensor, adding masses to the pan in ? kg increments, and again while decreasing the applied mass. This provides two set of readings for data analysis. The experiment should be repeated to provide further sets of data. Avoidable errors: Incorrect use of equipment Level the apparatus using the adjustable feet. A circular spirit level has been mounted on the base of the dead-weight calibrator for this purpose Check that the drain valve (at the back of the Bourdon gauge base) is closed, and the damping valve is fully open. 80 Remove the piston from the cylinder, then fill the priming vessel with water (purified or de-ionized water is preferable). Close the priming valve, then replace the piston in the cylinder. Take a set of readings without priming the system first. Random errors: Friction effects Prime the system as described in the equipment set up instructions. Tilt the board at an angle of about 5 to 10 degrees. THE EQUIPMENT BASE MUST STILL BE FIRM AND SECURE. Titling the apparatus in this way will exaggerate any friction effects, as the force applied by the piston will no longer be acting straight downwards on the column of fluids, but will have components acting at right-angles to cylinder wall. Spin the piston. Take one reading while the piston is spinning, then observe the behavior of the needle. Continue to watch the needle as the piston stops spinning, then make a note of the new gauge reading. Apply masses to the piston in ? kg increments. At each step, spin the piston, note the sensor output, and then take a second reading after the piston stops spinning. Systematic errors: Zero error Calibrate the semiconductor pressure sensor, but do not include mass of piston in the applied mass when calculating the applied pressure. Take a set of readings from the calibrated semiconductor sensor over a range of applied masses, now including the piston mass in the applied mass calculation. Human error Take a set or readings from the Bourdon gauge pressure scale, but stand at an angle to the dial face when taking each reading. Keep the same viewing angle for each reading. This illustrates the effect of parallax on the readings taken. RESULTS Tabulate your results under the headings on the following page: For each result, calculate the absolute difference, ea between indicated value Pi and the applied pressure Pa. 81 Find the maximum absolute difference, the accuracy ea max and use this value and the corresponding indicated pressure to calculate the % accuracy of actual scale reading and the % accuracy of full-scale reading (use a range of 200 kN/m2). Correlate the data for several test runs, to give a set of indicated pressure readings corresponding to a single applied pressure. Use this correlated data table to calculate the mean of the results, Pmean, the mean deviation, dm, the absolute deviation, da, and the standard deviation, ?. Errors can also be illustrated graphically: 85 Piston diameter, d = †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. m Piston mass, MP = †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. kg Experimental conditions : †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Mass Applied Applied Applied Indicated Mean Absolute Standard Actual Accuracy % % Mean on deviation deviation deviation Accuracy Accuracy of mass force pressure pressure difference piston Actual Full result scale scale reading reading Mm dm da PI ea Emax e%a e%f Pmin Ma Fa Pa ? kg) (kg) (kN) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) 86 Plot a graph of actual pressure against indicated pressure. On the same graph, plot a straight line showing the actual pressure. This will illustrate three characteristics of the results: †¢ †¢ Deviati on of sensor readings from the actual value. Whether any deviation from the true reading is systematic (the graph will be a straight line or a smooth curve) or random (the graph will have no obvious relationship). Precision of the results. Precise results will be close together, not widely scattered. Precise results may still deviate strongly from the actual value. †¢

Apple International Marketing Essay

1. If you would be working for Apple (Ipad or Iphone) what strategies would you pursue in order avoid situation like what is happening today to Nokia Apple Inc. has already had a spectacular break-through in the technological race when it firstly released Iphone in 2007. Since when, there was a revolution in the technology field especially, in the Personal Computer (PC) industry involves: smartphone and tablet computer. If I worked for Apple Inc., in order to retain as well as to enhance the position of Apple in Today’s market, I would apply, deploy and develop the Relationship marketing with â€Å"Differentiation† strategies based on 4P includes: Product-Price-Promotion-Place. Product Firstly, people have to admit the truth that the present success of Apple was built on the brilliant products. Compared to Nokia, Apple already created a key competitive advantage that raises company to a new level. The failure of Nokia was a cost lesson for others mobile phone manufacturer in the world. The main reasons leading Nokia to this moment situation is company already missed a valuable opportunity in smartphone revolution as well as its products. Even though, later on Nokia unveiled smartphone Lumia but it did not satisfy the consumers’ demand and expectation. Nokia product’s designs are not attractive and fashionable as Iphone. In addition, the products are outdated interface, lack of applications and outdated technologies compared to Apple’s products. Consequently, Nokia loose its leading brand value in the mobile phone industry. Meanwhile, Apple realized and took that opportunity then turned it into huge success. Hence, Apple should continue the product differentiation strategy. It mainly focuses on investing more in creating and developing the new and innovative technologies, which are totally different from competitors’. The products should be usually updated and upgraded in both its particular outlook (thinnest, most lightweight, unique, fashionable and outstanding) and functions (convenient, ease-use, support applications and service etc.). This is the only way to make company continue keep its crown as innovator in the intensive technological competition. Price Secondly, despite the Apple is assessed as â€Å"the tech industry’s high-price leader† with Premium price, people are still willing to purchase its products at a particular price. The main point is price set based on the â€Å"product Differentiation strategies†. Therefore, in order to exist and grow in the price war, the company not only retain the same price strategy but also use more the pricing Skimming and Reference strategies: launching a same product line but in different price points depending on the features and drive capacities. It may be better for Apple than using the penetration pricing strategies by suddenly decreasing the price to expand or approach new market. Promotion In order to get the large impact from media and society, one key in the Apple’s marketing is its traditional promotion strategies by creating hype and excitement before the launch of products. Apple is considered as â€Å"Phenomenon† and each marketing communication relating to â€Å"Word of mouth† created huge impact on consumer behavior. Organizing significant campaigns with special slogan to introduce and get emotional response about the new products, which concentrate on the consumer psychology: the curiousness, self-esteem, desire and passion in new technologies Place Finally, expanding and opening new multi-distribution channels with high sales volume (retail store chain and online sales). Simultaneously, more creating the strong relationship with worldwide retail partners. In conclusion, Relationship Marketing based on â€Å"Differentiation strategies† focusing on customer retention and satisfaction, which in order to enhance, increase customer loyalty and sustainable development. Apple Inc. has to understand the market dynamic to keep its track as market driven by inventing the unique and creative product lines as well as innovation technology. 2. On the other hand, if you would be working for a competitor of Apple (Tablet or mobile), what strategies would you adopt in order to compete against Apple Apple (Iphone and Ipad) is considered as the biggest rival in the PC industry of Samsung (Galaxy S), Nokia (Lumia), Google (Nexus), Amazon (Kindle Fire). Even though, Apple has been dominating the PC industry but its target market selection is â€Å"Market specialization†. The weakness of Apple is the limited market share because of the premium price and most Apple content can only run on its selected devices. If we are competitors of Apple, we can use the Apple’s strategies to compete against it. It means we should also apply the â€Å"Differentiation strategies† to provide more perceived value to consumer. Every time, Apple releases new product or any application, we might prepare to create and unveil our amazing different products with adding more value proposition. Take for instances, to accompany with product, we can offer new innovative or free (or low cost charge) applications, software, movies, TV shows, games, e-books, cloudy computing or even more drive capacity etc. Although, we do not have as strong customer loyalty as Apple has, our competitive advantage is offering the same product’s quality with a competitive price which is less than Apple’s but still not too low to confirm our position in the market. In addition, as some Apples’s competitors (eg: Kindle of Amazon) did, they used the bundle pricing strategies combine two or more products and sell these at a reduced price or offer programs: buy once but easy to access content on other devices ipad, iphone, tablets . Then little by little getting the expansion international scale with â€Å"Full market coverage† (different product lines suitable for every customers) through different market entries, distribution channels and marketing communication campaigns. 3. Make a SWOT analysis for Apple (Ipad and Iphone) Apple’s SWOT analysis a. Define what are the biggest threats and opportunities for Apple in the future Threats Nowadays, the high technology industry seems to be in the â€Å"Saturation† but in the future, people still believe there would be remarkable changes. In the future, the most threats that Apple may face is the intensive and high level in technology competition. The threats might be coming from both existing and emerging competitors. The growing in the market share leads to the consequence that there growth in perception and needs/demands of customers. In addition, there are more and more counterfeit and fake products overflowing market that affect directly to the company image and sales. If Apple cannot find the solution, soon company is surpassed by others competitors. Opportunities: Ranking as a top leading innovator brings many open-opportunities for Apple. The biggest opportunity of Apple is changes in technology offer new and innovative products. The company can even get and deploy from the outsourcing for its research and development. Creating the technology revolution and changing desire of information age affecting to most generations. As one of the most famous philosophies of strategic marketing pioneer – Regis McKenna: â€Å"Markets for new innovative products do not exist, they have to be created, and defined†. Therefore, creating and expanding the product/service lines by Apple could help them define its market, raise sales and increase their product portfolio. b. Define what are the biggest strengths and weaknesses of Apple today Strengths In 2012, this is the second time when Apple is ranked the world’s most valuable brand according to â€Å"The 2012 BrandZ Top 100 Most Valuable Global Brands†. It is said that the Apple’s brand success is driven by three elements confidence, competence and customers. Might be the reason why people purchase Apple’s product because they just care about its brand and image. As the David Haigh stated in the annual report on the world’s most valuable global brands: â€Å"Brands are the most valuable assets in business today. They drive demand, motivate staff, secure business partners and reassure financial markets. Leading edge organizations recognize the need to understand brand equity and brand value when making strategic decisions† – David Haigh, CEO, Brand Finance plc. Apple is successful in creating its identity and emotional branding that all most the whole world can recognize. Long term brand building will engage consumers on a variety of touch points that create the high loyalty. Weaknesses Entering the Niche market with the premium price strategies, which can considered as Apple’s weakness. The price wars between competitors will also affect to Apple’s profits. Moreover, the company’s target market selection is â€Å"Market specialization† then it quite limits the market share cause products provided by Apple meet the demand of middle/ upper class and people are interested in innovation technology. Reference Mr. Francois Simon’s lecture and materials http://www.tutor2u.net/blog/index.php/business-studies/comments/nokia-and-strategic-change-the-essential-a2-business-case http://theapplephenomenon.blogspot.fi/ http://www.brandfinance.com/images/upload/bf_g500_2012_web_dp.pdf http://www-sul.stanford.edu/mac/mckenna.html http://www.wpp.com/wpp/press/press/default.htm?guid={92b52c53-fc68-45e0-aaea-34fe6fbd769b} http://www.amazon.com/gp/feature.html?ie=UTF8&docId=100071977 http://www.saleschase.com/blog/2012/04/03/little-known-secrets-of-apples-pricing-strategy/ http://www.saleschase.com/blog/2012/03/13/the-best-of-apples-marketing-strategies/ http://blog.openviewpartners.com/apples-marketing-strategy-history-repeats-itself/ http://blogs.gartner.com/eric-knipp/2009/09/28/cost-leadership-and-differentiation/ http://www.slideshare.net/kaushiik10/apple-inc-marketin-and-distribution-strategy

Literary Technique in “The Story of an Hour” and “A Rose for Emily”

The protagonists of â€Å"The Story of an Hour,† by Kate Chopin and â€Å"A Rose for Emily,† by William Faulkner long for a freedom withheld by the heavy hand of their surroundings. At the presentation of both these stories, it is easy to see how this could become a classic telling of the Southern condition but the skillful use of foreshadowing and symbolism creates irony in a series of seemingly ordinary events. Both women in these stories were bound by the strict expectations of their society.Louise and Emily not only feel but also live by the demands that society and their families have placed on them. When they finally realize their sovereignty, they attempt to maintain it in the most unconventional manner. In Faulkner’s â€Å"A Rose for Emily,† Emily endures the push and pull of social graces and the strict expectations of a lady well into her life. After her father, and last attachment to pre-war decencies, passes, Emily confines herself to her home. She eventually begins to date a young man, Homer Baron, a day laborer and heavy drinker who is far from the accepted suitor. Emily seems to have achieved her purpose as a true Southern lady when she marries Baron. For reasons unbeknown to her ever-prying town, she then boards up her home and never leaves again. Upon her death the town realizes that Baron died, or rather had been killed, shortly after the wedding while his corpse lay in the marriage bed ever since.This absolute preservation of a thriving time was the only way Emily could maintain freedom in her mind. Emily had become so engrossed in the norms of her culture that her world became too small to live in. Caught in the societal transition of Civil War aftermath) and with the constant vigilance of Emily by the townspeople, we can see there is no option for complete fulfillment in her life. Her choice to live in a â€Å"snapshot† of her life becomes the only adequate one. Like Emily, the protagonist in â€Å"The Sto ry of an Hour,† Louise, feels inhibited in her life.When Louise Mallard is told of her husband's death, she rejoices seeing the possibility for a new course in life, free from the obligation of marriage. In the early moments of her new venture, it is discovered her husband is in fact alive. She was imprisoned in her husband's life, free in his death, and then entombed by the realization of the misinformation. Brently Mallard's death symbolizes the end of obligatory formalities on Louise; the loss of her new found freedom stops her heart from beating.It is clear that the expectation of Louise is so overwhelming that her body literally cannot sustain its pressure any longer. In the beginning of the story the reader is warned of Louise’s heart troubles, it is then discovered this â€Å"trouble† may have manifested because of her conformation to social practices. This story initially leads the reader to a presumption of a typical reaction by a genteel Southern woman, but with the admission into the true thoughts of Louise, the reader may see what is customary is not always what is natural.The characters of â€Å"The Story of an Hour† and â€Å"A Rose for Emily† personify women who have been lost in a world cultured by society, inhibited by its demands and mistaken by its perceptions. These stories force a more critical reading of what could be seen as â€Å"typical† behavior. The controversies of the Southern tradition are personified in both characters, representing larger ideas that would perpetuate the downfall of a culture. As these stories employ foreshadowing as a literary tactic, the stories themselves aim to suggest an unfavorable end if reconsideration is not given to the status quo.

Recent biotechnological approaches that have been used to enhance the Essay

Recent biotechnological approaches that have been used to enhance the yield and diversity of amino acids, vitamins, antibiotics - Essay Example These enrichments are only possible with Biotechnology. In the agriculture sector, many technologies are used such as genetic manipulation and gene transfer, development of recombinant vaccines, molecular markers, DNA-based disease diagnosis and characterization, embryo transfer and in vitro propagation of plants. In the food industry, the food processing is the main part where biotechnology intermission is required. For the improvement of the bacterial strains, genetic modification of the strains for the food processing microorganisms by the identification, characterization and alteration is done. Thus biotechnology has vast applications in many fields. Biofuels: As the fossil fuels are very limited, the search for the alternative methods that are renewable and safe are looked upon. The biological fuels such as ethanol, methane, hydrogen etc., are increasing day by day. To improve the production quality of these biofuels, the biotechnological approaches are used. The drawbacks of th ese methods such as low yield, high cost of feed, ad lack of active micro organisms can be overcome by using biotechnological approaches. ... Here the metabolic pathway is altered. The glucose metabolism towards the metabolic pyruvate formate lyase pathway by interrupting the succinate producing and lactate producing pathways. (Yoshida et al. 2006). By this technique the yield of hydrogen was increased from 1.08 mol/mol glucose to 1.83 mol/mol glucose which is 190 percent increase in the yields when compared to the wild strain hydrogen production. (Yoshida et al. 2006). The maize is used for the production of biofuel nowadays. The distillery soluble waste obtained after the ethanol production called as dried distiller grain soluble (DDGS), is usually left out as cattle feed. The researchers have found that this DDGS has a lot of nutritional value and if the feed is improved with amino acid and vitamin content, it can be used for swine and poultry. (Ufaz and Galili 2008). Lignocellulostic biomass is widely used as the main source of sugars for the fermentation to biofuels and other energy sources. These sugars are present b ound to the plant cell walls. The process of overcoming these barriers by the use of some break through technologies is termed as â€Å"biomass recalcitrance†. (Tomes and Lakshmanan 2010). Pretreatment of the biomass and then using it as the raw material for biofuel production will result in better yield. As lignin is not degraded easily by the protease enzymes, some modification to the substrate is very essential. Lignin hinders its active site form the enzymes and also binds reversibly to the proteins, because of this nature of lignin the enzymatic conversion is very less. So an alternative approach of increasing the pore size of the biomass can help to increase the enzymatic activity. Enzymes such as cellulase and hemicellulase are used for the

PR Functions Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

PR Functions - Case Study Example PR performs both organizational and societal functions influencing internal workers and wife target audience. Organizational detention involves workers and investors, management policies and the Board of Directors, etc. At this level, PR bridges information gaps in distribution channels, help coordinate the total marketing system, and adjust products and services to customer needs. Press releases and investors information are integral components of the communications mix (Apple Home Page 2008). Self-image is a function of societal norms. Group membership and group belonging relate directly to self-esteem and favorable self-image; acceptance and the grant of status by various organizations embellish the phenomenal self. The ability of groups to foster the development of more favorable self-images encourages belonging; the ability of products, symbols, services, communications, and other aspects of the marketing program to enhance the self-image encourages consumption behavior. One of the bases for understanding consumer behavior in its psychological and sociological dimensions, the self-image concept adds an important perspective to economic theories of consumption and is directly related to motivation (Gillin, 2007). At the societal level, Apple addresses all stakeholders including society and potential customers, IT professionals and economists, etc. At this level, the value of information about product characteristics varies directly with buyers' costs of search. When transactions and search costs are sufficiently small, buyers search more intensively and the additional advantage of intensive specialized search diminishes. The opposite is true for those with high search costs. Indeed, if search costs are sufficiently high it may not even pay to enter the differentiated products market at all (Gillin, 2007). The value of attribute information also depends on the difference between each consumer's preferences and market availabilities. If individual consumers exhibit little dispersion in their preferences and search costs, the gross value of advertising product characteristics is small and its net social value may be even negative, for the same reason it was in some of the examples in the sectio n above on advertising and perceptions. Since advance knowledge of attributes allows customers to specialize search activities in the most preferred varieties, the value of catering to particular groups is correspondingly greater when there is greater dispersion in tastes among buyers (Apple Home Page 2008). The aim of PR is to maintain relations with stakeholders and create a unique image of the company. The value and importance of PR is that a buyer cannot afford to investigate all of the alternative qualities of the products in the market. If Apple can increase profit and sales by offering a genuinely superior design and price in comparison with the existing configuration, there remains a possibility of accomplishing a similar result by changing buyers' perceptions of an existing good. So far as individual firms are concerned, these activities have the same initial effects on sales and profit as were examined in the preceding section. But the nature of market equilibrium and the social consequences of such actions are markedly different (Apple Home Page

To what extent has economic development brought about changes to the Essay

To what extent has economic development brought about changes to the position of women in South East Asia discuss with examples from one or two South East Asia - Essay Example Recent news broadcasts herald the advancement of women in Vietnam and on the surface things look very positive: in State agencies, women hold 20% of managerial positions and they account for almost 26% in the National Assembly; the country has bred a group of self motivated female industrialists; their intensified role in society is also replicated in their involvement in science and technology, culture and sports; the number of female technical doctors and professors has increased in recent years, and female volleyball players and football players have bought fame to the nation with their excellent triumphs. (VietNamNet, 2007) While it mat be true that Vietnam leads the Asia and the Pacific region in key aspects of gender equality and within the Asia-Pacific region, is second only to New Zealand, in terms of female representation in the legislature, (VietNamNet, 2007) this equality is not as clear cut as it may seem. A report by the Asian Development Bank in 2007 says that with one of the highest rates of economic participation of women in the world, Vietnam is one of the more advanced countries in respect to gender equality. They tell us that there is little difference between genders in school enrollment rates, and that literacy is high for everyone, and the gender gap is decreasing."Equality between men and women is enshrined in the Constitution of Vietnam," (Ban De In, 2006) and according to the 1996 Constitution and related laws, women and men have equal rights with respect to economic opportunities, marriage and family matters, political input, community management, and ownership of property including land. The 2000 Law on Marriage and Family specifies that certificates for the use of common land by a household must list the names of both the husband and wife, thus signifying shared ownership. However, the prior 1993 Land Law, does not mention dual ownership, and in most cases, these certi ficates are registered in the name of the husband or male head of the household. This in turn, makes it more difficult for women to obtain credit for business opportunities. Although women, by law have equal rights in terms of property, they are often hindered by social factors, which intersect and conflict with legislation and enforcement of these equal rights is usually left to the judgment of local officials, who are usually male and vie in favor of the male member of the household. (Fahey et al, 2002) In 2002, the Vietnamese government approved the National Strategy for the Advancement of Women to 2010. "The strategy aimed to improve the material and spiritual lives of women, and create good conditions to effectively implement fundamental rights and promote the role, of women in political, economic, cultural and social fields." (Vietnam Embassy USA, 2006) Although to date, many of the targets set by the strategy for women's advancement such as, providing jobs, abolishing illiteracy, reducing the mortality rate related to pregnancy and birth, and increasing the rate of female representatives in the people's councils at all levels, have been

A Joint Venture Company. What Is The Difference Between This Type Of Essay

A Joint Venture Company. What Is The Difference Between This Type Of Companies And Joint Stock Companies - Essay Example Since a joint venture partnership company is only formed for the short term, it terminates when the purpose of the joint venture partnership company is fulfilled. Similarly, each party also contributes in the assets to start up this joint venture. Most often, companies use joint ventures as a means of infiltrating foreign markets where they see potential and seek to do business in. for instance, if a foreign company is interested in doing business in China, they will form a joint venture company with a domestic Chinese firm which will help them gain access to the Chinese market due to the experience of the domestic company which already knew the ropes of how to function in the local Chinese market. Furthermore, when foreign companies enter into joint venture partnership companies with domestic firms of the market that they want to enter and operate in, they are not the only ones who benefit from the arrangement. Domestic firms are at an advantage in this arrangement too, they benefit from the new technological and business practices that the foreign firms bring to their market which serve as a learning experience for the domestic firms, consequently expanding their horizons. The foreign companies benefit from the value provided to them by the domestic company’s pre-existing relationship with the key players in the domestic government and industry. In more technical terms, a joint venture is treated like a regular partnership business for taxation purposes. However, joint ventures that transcend the boundaries of one country and go global are subject to international trade laws as well as the internal laws of the government of the economy they plan to penetrate. (Joint Venture, 2010). According to Folta (2012), who writes about foreign joint ventures in China, talks about how joint ventures a way for foreign firms to get past the barriers of the local Chinese market and reap the benefits of business operations in the local market. While talking about the advantages of joint venture partnership companies, the author mentions several factors that come into play. Other advantages of joint venture partnership companies include the fact thet they alleviate rich, grant access to domestic markets, are easier to manage and offer benefits in terms of tax advantages. â€Å"Partnerships, Joint Ventures and Strategic Alliances† talks about the effective connection among the three entities in business. As the authors point out, joint ventures have one of the highest crash rates in the world. (Glover and Wasserman, 2003). Yet, still joint ventures are becoming a growing trend in the modern globalized world. (Gutterman, 1997). As can be deduced, this paradigm shift has been due to the vast avenue of opportunities that globalization has opened up for businesses all over the world. They have now become interested in foreign economies as lucrative sources of investment and income for their business operations and joint venture companies provid e them an ideal platform to increase their reach into the market of a foreign economy they are interested in. Visconti (2003) in his book â€Å"Joint Venture† also talks about the topic along similar lines. Joint stock companies on the other hand are companies set up for business activity with the profit motive with profit divided among the owners who are the share holders in proportion to the amount of stock they own in the company. When owners invest in a joint stock company they receive shares in return for that investment. The business operatio

Improving the Performance of a Team Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Improving the Performance of a Team - Assignment Example Technical factors include understanding the mission, spelling out goals, and developing activities critical to success of the goal. To improve the functioning of a particular team, these factors have to be addressed. The following steps go towards improving the performance of a team. A project team is subject to group dynamics because of an assembly of individuals with diverse talents and commitments. The most common problems faced by work teams arise from: Different points of view, role conflicts, implicit power struggles, and groupthink which compromises decisions in favour of unanimity. (Nurick, 2001) There are many other problems that may arise due to behavioural and skill factors. Performance measures need to be devised taking both performance factors and process factors into account. The performance measures would measure the performance/outcome factors which may be: Team cohesion; Improvement orientation like creativity, forward thinking, proactivity; and Team achievements. Team process factors, which also affect the performance of a team includes factors such as: Team relationships, team focus, approach to performance, leadership style, team discipline, team decision making, team confidence, value of contributions, decision focus, social contact, process focus, and lastly, consistency. Team performance is also related to attractiveness of performance, agreement with team goals, team goal level, and willingness to use cross-training, perceived participation, team efficacy, and team commitment. Some factors which also need to be measured are: 1. Team member dispositions - Studies have indicated that employees' need for achievement, need for affiliation, aggressiveness towards other people and the value placed on autonomy affect the team in a lot of ways. 2. Team process skills - process skills include skills like communication, leadership, goal setting, problem solving, and conflict resolution skills. 3. Employee perceptions about the team - This includes perceptions about team efficacy, and perceived participation. 4. Goals and goal commitments - this includes factors like team goal level, goal commitment, agreement with team goal, and performance expectations. 5. Attractiveness of performance and self efficacy. (Scott and Townsend, 1994) Measures that take the above factors into account can help assess how the team would fare in a task and what is to be done to improve its performance. Step 2: Making the Team and Planning Work Activities The second step to enhancing team performance involves the selection and training of the team and planning the work activities for the team. Selection: To ensure team effectiveness one criterion for selection of members of a team is interpersonal skills. Other criteria would include the member disposition, member skill sets, commitment to goals, and other such factors. This can be done by using the performance measures devised in the first step. Training: The next step would involve training the team in product knowledge, time management; interpersonal skills like listening, assertiveness, and conflict management skills; creativity; meeting deadlines; energy and determination; reporting and administration; personal appearance and image; steadiness under pressure, and such other factors. In addition to receiving training in skills they should be empowered to use

Investing in Gold and Silver Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Investing in Gold and Silver - Essay Example By depositing the gold and silver into the respective banks of nations, it was replaced with paper money based on the value of the gold and silver they deposited (Dunwiddle, 2008). The problem started to arise when the World War closed in and the countries required huge amounts of resources to fund the wars. Prior to the World War, the gold standard was in place in most of the countries. Gold Standard, as explained above is when people could convert their gold into paper money. Hence, the government is restricted in the amount of paper money it could print. The advantage of this gold standard upholds is that the inflation is kept under check, as the supply of money is limited (Haynes, 2005). To fund the war the United Kingdom and the United States both abandoned the Gold Standard, in 1920s and 1933 respectively. This was replaced by the Gold Exchange Standard, through which countries did no longer hold reserves in actual gold, but in dollars and pounds. Thus putting these currencies in a strong position in the world, while the other countries kept on piling up foreign currency thinking they were good as gold. In 1974 to further cut the ties between gold and currency, US government of Nixon abolished the link. Due to the need of yet more funds for the Vietnam War, the government abolished this link. The effects of this final blow, led to high inflation further helping the government and big businesses. Leslie Snyder in her book, â€Å"Why Gold? The One Sure Cure for Inflation and Economic Tyranny† named inflation as a vicious form of taxation on the common people, while the big corporations and government are the beneficiaries (Snyder, 1974). The importance and relevance of this historical background of Gold and Silver, is to understand how valuable gold and silver is even today. One thing to keep in mind is that even though the abolishment led to high inflation and budget deficits during the 1970s, the prices of gold and silver also increased with it. He nce the investment in silver and more importantly gold is always a safe bet. When inflation was at the highest in the United States during 1979 and 1980 the return on the gold was 130.4% on an average. It is a great hedge against high inflation; this holds true for the current market situation as well (BERU). Currently, the central banks are planning to announce unlimited liquidity to the financial sector. This would further fuel inflation and move it a step closer towards hyperinflation and top of the exhaustion of the savings and diminishing purchasing power, the metals such as Gold and Silver will emerge as winners. This is due to fact that the governments and central banks continue to print more and more money. According to William Bancroft, the gold is undervalued today in terms of the money being published. Considering this scenario the investors in the mining sector will be rewarded handsomely in the future. The opposite side of inflation is deflation. According to Bancroft, not only will a high inflation have a positive impact on gold, but a deflation will result in a desirable outcome. Due to the economics of deflation, it would put high pressures on the banks. Resulting in bank failures, depositors will find other means to safeguard their money. As history has shown, there is no safer investment than gold and silver. Due to the nature and high performance of these metals, gold and silver in tough times i.e., especially in times of hyperinflation is why most advisors encourage

Politics in Texas Essay Example for Free

Politics in Texas Essay The Texan republicans stand for the ideas of individualism. That entrepreneurship is the key to unlocking the powers of the economy, according to the Republican Party. The Democratic Party respects the notion of small business and entrepreneurship as it also strives to encourage jobs for hard-working laborers. In conjunction with this, the Democrats want businesses to be more flexible and technologically friendly, along with finding creative, environmentally-sound ways of promoting business. The Green Party also claims to support the power of the small business, but they have a more environmental approach that specifies several details in which companies should abide. In accordance with this, the Green Party wishes to limit free-trade in exchange with environmentally and labor friendly trade. They also specify a set wage that would allow an individual to afford a one-bedroom apartment on thirty-percent of their income. In opposition to a heavily regulated economy, the libertarians seem like the Republican Party, but to a more extreme. They are against most taxation, including income taxes since they define a wage or salary as a trade of money and service, not an equity. I believe this to be a proper point. How can people promote the economy when a chunk of their wages is taken by the government? The Libertarians are also opposed to the use of eminent domain which I agree with. It should not be up to the government to choose how someone’s property may or may not be used.

Indias Foreign Policy Towards China: An Analysis

Indias Foreign Policy Towards China: An Analysis KAUTILYAS THOUGHTS ON FOREIGN POLICY AND ANALYSE ITS RELEVANCE TO MODERN INDIA PARTICULARLY WITH REGARDS TO CHINA CHAPTER I METHODOLOGY General 1. The making of foreign policy is an exercise to achieve ends and means of a nation state. Conceptually it is based on long term goals and related short term objectives. It is the product of past history, geography, evolving national power and prevalent international environment, which is largely out of countrys control[1]. 2. Indian Foreign Policy towards China was initially based on idealism of Nehru, steered towards realism by Mrs Indira Gandhi, asserted by Rajiv Gandhi and culminated with India going overtly nuclear under Vajpayee in May 1998. From Hindi-Chini bhai bhai to potential enemy number one to great friend, India just does not know how to deal with its neighbourhood dragon that has played its cards so skilfully vis-à  -vis India. 3. Indias dominant geostrategic location, vast natural and technological manpower resources, a vibrant emerging economy backed by strong military and nuclear capability, visible soft power and presence of the Indian Diaspora the world over, make it an ideal candidate to be a major player in the world in general and South Asian region in particular. 4. India and China are the two major powers in Asia with global aspirations and some significant conflicting interests. As a result, some amount of friction in their bilateral relationship is inevitable. The geopolitical reality of Asia makes sure that it will be extremely difficult, if not impossible, for Hindi-Chini to be bhai-bhai (brothers) in the foreseeable future. If India and China continue to rise in the next few years, a security competition between the two regional giants will be all but inevitable. If India is serious about its desire to emerge as a major global power, then it will have to tackle the challenge of Chinas rise. A rising China will not tolerate a rising India as its peer competitor. Even if a rising India does not have any intention of becoming a regional hegemon, China will try its best to constrain India as it has already done to a large extent. And it is that containment that India has to guard against. India should make a serious attempt to manage the fr ictions by expanding the zone of cooperation with allies even as it tries to steadfastly pursue its national interests. 5. Indian foreign policy agenda should be driven by only Indias national security imperatives. India needs to be more pro-active, consistent, and realistic when engaging China. It is time for India to realise that Its great power aspirations cannot be realised without a cold-blooded realistic assessment of its own strategic interests in an anarchic international system where there are no permanent friends or enemies, only permanent interests. 6. It would be prudent to look, into the wisdom of Kautilyas , Arthashastra, a treatise on polity and statecraft to learn the lessons on war and strategy , national power and national security and threat perception and threat assessment. Statement of Problem 7. To study Kautilyas thoughts on strategy and analyse its relevance to the present day Indian Geo-political environment with particular regards to China. Justification of the Study 8. Kautilyas Arthashastra has been recognised the world over as an invaluable treatise on all facets of statecraft and polity. Its eternal wisdom and timelessness can be gauged from the fact that it is still quoted by scholars, academicians, bureaucrats and soldiers alike the world over. The interest generated in this epic illustrates that the thoughts on strategy to sustain and advance a state still provides valuable lessons. The twentieth century which has seen two world wars of long duration and host of other conflicts worldwide has also generated a fairly large number of studies on strategy commensurate with the advances in technology and new methods in warfare. But there is certain universality about classical strategic thoughts which prompts academics and scholars to go back to these works both in terms of comparative analysis and their reinterpretation in the changing world. 9. Strategy over the ages has been defined in different ways reflective of the times in which they were made and the existing interstate relations and economic and social state of a nation. Higher or Grand strategy is hardly understood nor does it seem to have been practised in India. It is therefore important to study the various facets of this vital subject as propounded by Kautilya in his Arthashastra, as it is so critical for the existence and security of a nation. Scope 10. The Arthashastra is a compendium on various aspects of statecraft and lays down measures to be followed by a king to sustain and advance a state. The contents of this treatise are very exhaustive covering a broad spectrum to include the minor details at one end to grand strategy on the other. However this study concentrates on the various facets of stratagem enunciated by Kautilya and analyse their relevance to modern India particularly with regards to China Method of Data Collection 11. All the information for this study has been gathered from various books (refer bibliography) and internet. Content 12. Background. Kautilyas Arthashastra is an excellent treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy. It is said to have been written by Kautilya, also known by the name Chanakya or Vishnugupta, the prime minister of Indias first great emperor, Chandragupta Maurya. This chapter will include the following:- (a) Authenticity and date of Arthashastra. (b) Historical account of life of Kautilya. 13. Kautilyas Foreign Policy. In Interstate relations power constitutes the ability of a nation to impose its will on another nation despite resistance. This Chapter will include:- (a) Saptanga concept of state. Kautilyas theory of the state describes the seven constituent elements of any state[2] and is an exposition of the theory of the Circle of States (The mandala theory) as the basis for a foreign policy of expansion by conquest. The seven constituents are the basis of the national power and happiness. He then relates as to how national power varies due to expansion or calamities and how pursuance of national interest is directly related to the possession of national power. (b) Postulates of foreign policy. As a political realist, Kautilya assumed that every nation acts to maximize power and self-interest, and therefore moral principles or obligations have little or no force in actions among nations[3]. Kautilyas postulates on foreign policy international relations, national security to include internal and external security, war waging methodology to include Mantrayuddha or War by Counsel, Prakasayuddha or Open War, kutayuddha or Concealed War, Gudayuddha or Clandestine War. 14. Mandala Concept as the Basis of National Strategy. Kautilya, says that the the aggressor (Vijigishu), should conclude, peace when he finds that he is weaker than the enemy[4]; he should wage war when he finds himself to be stronger; he should adopt neutrality when assesses that neither he nor his enemy can settle the score; he should seek refuge when he is weak; and he should adopt the duel policy in a contingency requiring the help from, another ruler. War and foreign policy issues are thus decided in an ad hoc framework of political expediency. When progress is equally attainable by means of peace and war, Kautilya says that the former is to be preferred. This is so, for war involves expenditure in men and money, residence in a foreign land, and suffering.This chapter will include the following:- (a) Mandala Theory. Kautilya believed that countries which shared a common border were natural enemies. However, any state on the other side of that enemy is a natural choice for an ally for they, too, are at risk from the same enemy. In other words, he believed in the principle of â€Å"the enemy of my enemy is my friend.† The idea is best envisioned by a series of concentric circles (not a normal configuration of states, admittedly, but easier to describe), which actually makes them look a bit like a mandala. (b) Potential enemies. â€Å"A neighboring prince possessed of the excellences of an enemy is the foe; one in calamity is vulnerable; one without support or with weak support is fit to be exterminated; in the reverse case, fit to be harassed or weakened. These are the different types of enemies[5].† (c) Alliances. A perfect ally is said to have six qualities,namely, constant, under control, quickly mobilising, hereditary, great and not given to double dealing. (d) The six measures of foreign policy. Kautilya however believes that there are spin-offs of these, thus providing six methods of foreign policy. These are making peace, waging war, staying quiet, preparing for war, seeking support, and the dual policy of making peace with one while waging war against another[6]. Ones circumstances will dictate which methods should be used. 15. Application of Mandala Theory in the Contemporary Indian geo-political Scenario. This Chapter will include the classification of friends, enemies, potential enemies, and likely allies on the basis of Mandala theory. 16. Implication of Chinas Rise in Indian Perspective. This chapter will include the following:- (a) Chinas comprehensive strategy. (b) Chinese Balance of power strategy in Asia. (c) Chinese economic Strategy. (d) Chinas encirclement policy. (e) Relationship with Indias neighbours. (f) Chinas perception of India. (g) Indias perception of China. (h) Implication of Chinas strategy on Indias security. 17. Application of Kautilyan Wisdom in Sino-Indian Relations. This chapter will include the following:- (a) Chinese critical vulnerabilities. (b) Indian options to counter Chinese threat. (c) Suggested Indian Strategy against China. â€Å"Miraculous results can be achieved by practising the methods of subversion†. Kautilya CHAPTER II BACKGROUND General 1. Kautilya, also known as Chanakya [7]or Vishnugupta, was an Indian statesman and philosopher who lived around 350 B.C.E. He is one of the most famous Indian political thinkers who participated in the social and political revolutions of his age. Though he lived a long time ago, certain principles from his theory are still relevant in todays context. His most famous work is Arthashastra, translated differently by various authors, but in its most acceptable meaning, the â€Å"science of political economy[8].† The book, written in Sanskrit, discusses theories and principles of governing a state. Arthashastra remains unique in all of Indian literature because of its unabashed advocacy of realpolitik. Indian scholars continued to study it for its clear-cut arguments and formal prose till the twelfth century. After that period it lost its significance. It has again become the focus of attention of thinkers who want to see a change in the Indian foreign policy[9]. 2. Kautilya was a Brahmin minister under Chandragupta Maurya[10], the first king of the great Mauryan Empire in India. The empire was the largest and most powerful political and military empire of ancient India. It was founded in 321 B.C.E. by Chandragupta Maurya[11], who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and begun expanding his power across central and western India. The Empire stretched to the North along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the West, it reached beyond modern Pakistan and included Baluchistan in Persia and significant portions of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. 3. Many call Kautilya the first political realist in the world.[12] His work differed from existing political theory in that it talked about ways of running the administration which were based more on self interest than on morality. The frank and brutal advice he offers the king in his treatise makes Machiavellis â€Å"The Prince† seem mild.[13] There are four different characteristics of a realist approach to international relations:[14] (a) The assumption that human nature is aggressive. (b) The belief that international relations will always be characterized by conflict. (c) The belief that the foremost goal of the king shall be the protection of the state and its people. (d) The belief that the state must be strong politically, economically, and militarily so as to minimize the possibility of an attack. 4. He thus talked about balance of power before this term was actually invented.[15] He said that the king should consider all his neighbors as his enemies and that any state on the opposite side of a neighbor is a potential ally. So, if countries were in a line, countries 1, 3, 5, 7 could be friends, as could 2, 4, and 6. But countries 1, 2, and 3 could never be friends. This status would change as soon as country 1 conquered country 2. From that very instant country 3 (a friend) would be the new enemy. This is called his ‘mandala theory.'[16] Arthashastra 5. It is necessary to bear in mind that the Arthashastra, â€Å"the science of wealth and warfare,† was just discovered and translated in the past century in Mysore by R. Shamasastry[17], and that until then, there was no knowledge of any such compilation, despite scant allusions made to an â€Å"Arthashastra,† and its alternative names â€Å"Nitisastra† and â€Å"Dandaniti,† in the Mahabharata[18].Thomas Trautmann dates the text to c.150 A.D. and, through rigorous statistical analysis, he concludes that the Arthashastra had several authors spanning a wide range of dates,[19] which adds to the puzzle of how historically obscure the text has been for over the past two millennia. Nevertheless, its secretive nature adds credence to its function as a handbook on efficient statecraft for kings and high-level ministers. 6. Artha has always been regarded as one of the four purusharthas,[20] yet its teachings have been relegated to animal fables and folklore. No such shastras seem to have been compiled for public knowledge, as was the case of the Dharmashastras and Kamashastras. In stark contrast to the latter, the manuscript discovered in 1902 by Shamasastry was compiled as a guidebook for kings and high-level officials, rather than the average individual. The result is a perspective advocating a top-down style of governance with little or no representation held by the general populace, and the continual maintenance of such a state with energetic leadership and extensive secret service. Though the king and upper echelons of society involuntarily accepted such authority because of religious ideals just as much as the general populace did, the Arthashastra suggests the existence of a small elite with a secular and realist outlook that actively worked to uphold this power scheme and determine the overal l course of the kingdom.[21] 7. It is for this reason that the Arthashastra advocates reordering the priorities of the purusharthas, by valuing materialism over religion and morality.[22] Similarly, R.P. Kangle notes that â€Å"these ideals are meant for individuals† and that the conduct of public life was not to be guided by these rules for individual morality[23]. Management of the state necessitated realism, not idealism. It required the prudence and precise calculation of measures undertaken alongside their short and long-term consequences, which formulated the theoretical beginnings of economics: â€Å"Wealth will slip away from that childish man who constantly consults the stars: the only [guiding] star of wealth is itself; what can the stars of the sky do? Man, without wealth, does not get it even after a hundred attempts. Just as elephants are needed to catch elephants, so does wealth capture more wealth[24].† Public welfare was contingent upon the strength of the state. The latter was achi eved by internal development or territorial expansion, both of which were realized through power[25]. 8. The Arthashastra regards both economics and foreign policy as zero-sum games: the state would need to prosper economically lest it be overtaken by wealthier imperialist neighbors or suffer from internal rebellion by discontented government officials and military leaders. Furthermore, internal development would naturally lead to population growth and would eventually necessitate expansion, which is why L.N. Rangarajan notes that â€Å"the aim of creating a well-run state is to provide the base for expansion. Continuing with this logic, Kautilya deals in Book 7 with all the theoretical possibilities of conducting an expansionist foreign policy.†[26] Hence, the prime motive of the state was the never-ending pursuit of artha. It is only after dedicating its energies to this end can the state or king then move on to fulfilling dharma and kama. 9. This Arthashastra is primarily a book of political realism where State is paramount and King shall carry out duties as advised in his book to preserve his state. For Kautilya, military strategy was an integral part of the science of polity[27] and he made no distinction between military techniques and statecraft. Kautilyas work is so deep rooted in realism that he goes to describe the gory and brutal means a King must adopt to be in power. This could have been one reason why Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya whom Kautilya advised renounced violence and war thus taking the path of Dharma or Morals. 10. I will also be making a few references to the other books of Arthashatra where topics of Management have been dealt with. The areas covered under Management include training, management education, leadership skills, selection of employees, consultation, crisis management, risk management, strategic management, corporate governance, information systems, intelligence network, competition, mergers and acquisitions, etc. among many others. Kautilya 11. There are a large of theories as to who Chanakya, or Kautilya or Vishnugupta , was. Kautilya was an enigmatic whose origin is shrouded in mystery. However, all sources of Indian tradition Brahmin, Buddhist and Jain agree that Kautilya destroyed the Nanda dynasty and installed Chandragupta Maurya on the throne of Magadha. 12. One theory about his origin is that Chanakya was a Kerala Brahmin who somehow reached the court of the Nanda king at Pataliputra[28]. The next theory is that Chanakya was a North Indian Brahmin born and educated in Taxila[29] and that he was physically ugly, had a disgusting complexion and his limbs were deformed. As per Jain tradition, his parents noticed that Chanakya was born with full set of teeth, a mark of future king. They had the teeth removed as either parent did not want him to become a King . He became a King maker instead. 13. At a very early age little Chanakya started studying Vedas. He later also studied politics and economics. As a student and later a professor, the University of Taxila became Chanakyas breeding ground of acquiring knowledge in the practical and theoretical aspects on all walks of life. However, with the Greek armies of Selucus threatening to invade India, and the various kingdoms in the subcontinent on the verge of war and aggression with each other, Chanakya left the university at Taxila, and proceeded in his own words to strengthen the country politically and economically and to save the country from the clutches of foreign invaders. 14. In Magadha, Chanakya was insulted by the King of Patliputra, Dhana Nanda and he vowed to destroy the Nanda dynasty. He came upon Chandragupta and together, Chanakya and Chandragupta set about attacking the Nanda kingdom until finally Chandragupta was installed as the king of Magadha[30]. According to written tradition, Chanakya was a fearless person, not afraid of death, disgrace or defeat. He was compassionate of the poor and evil to schemers. 15. Chanakya then retired from active life and reflected on all that he had learnt during the process of overthrowing Dhana Nanda. Since he found the earlier works on statecraft[31] unsatisfactory in many respects, he composed his own definitive work presenting his ideas concerning the ways in which a ruler should gain power and maintain his authority. For Chanakya, military strategy was an integral part of the science of polity and he made no distinction between military techniques and statecraft. Thus came into being the ‘Arthashastra. There is no doubt that this treatise is the work of a genius, who spoke of matters which have held relevance down the ages to contemporary times with striking infallibility. The military writings of Chanakya precede those of Machiavelli and Clausewitz by centuries but seldom has this fact been acknowledged much less credited outside India. â€Å"The king who understands the interdependence of the six methods of foreign policy, plays, as he pleases, with other rulers bound to him by the chains of his intellect†. Kautilya CHAPTER III KAUTILYAN FOREIGN POLICY Saptanga Concept Of State 16. Kautilyas theory of the state describes the seven constituent elements of any state[32] and is an exposition of the theory of the Circle of States (The mandala theory) as the basis for a foreign policy of expansion by conquest. Of the seven elements, six (the King, the ministers, the people, the fortified city, the Treasury and the army) are internal elements; only the ally is an element outside the borders. The structure and organization of the six internal elements of a well ordered state are fully developed and explained by Kautilya in books I to 5. The aim of creating a well-run state is to provide the base for expansion. Continuing this logic, Kautilya in Book 7 deaIs with all theoretical possibilities of conducting an expansionist foreign policy. Before a King actually sets out on an expedition of conquest he has to take steps to guard himself against the dangers which might weaken any of constituent elements of his own state. Kautilya uses the word calamity (vyasana) in th e precise sense of any event which weakens any constituent element of a state, thereby preventing it from being to its full potential in the conduct of foreign policy or war[33]. 17. This theory in one form or another (in part, as elements of national power), has survived to this very day as a mainstay of reflection and analysis of international politics. Kautilya enumerates the desirable qualities each of these elements should display and points out, too, that his list of elements is arranged in descending order of importance: each succeeding element is less important than the one before it, the king being most important of all. A ruler who possesses the elements of state and who wisely takes care of them will never be defeated, he says, and then devotes the whole of Book VIII[34] to a systematic analysis of the troubles and calamities which might befall each one of these elements (in other words, to their malfunctioning). 18. The king is the focal point of analysis; he strives to maintain and improve his position knowing that the determinants of status in international society are two: power and happiness: The possession of power and happiness in a greater degree makes a king superior to another; in a lesser degree, inferior; and in an equal degree, equal. Hence a king shall always endeavour to augment his power and elevate his happiness. 19. Neither power nor happiness is clearly or exhaustively defined or analysed. We know, however, that power is to be understood as strength and that it has three components[35]:- (a) Mantrashakti; Power of counsel, deliberation or decision-making, including capacity for intrigue. (b) Prabhushakti; The treasury and the army. (c) Utsahashakti; Resolve and determination. 20. Thus power refers essentially to activity and application of the elements of the state, just mentioned. Happiness on the other hand is that which can be attained by the use of power. It is to some degree a measure of success of foreign policy and the implementation of its objectives, but it also indicates those qualities such as righteousness and also internal stability and not power alone that enter into the determination of international status. 21. A kings position is not, however, unchanging; his status relative to another king is variable and needs continuous attention. A king prevents deterioration in his position and secures an improvement (a desire for which is a built-in feature of the system) in two ways: by attention to the elements of his power, and by external action. Kautilya enjoins the ruler to pursue power investment: a wise king adopts policies that add to the resources of his country and enable him to build forts, to construct buildings and commercial roads, to open new plantations and villages, to exploit mines and timber and elephant forests, and at the same time to harass similar works of the enemy[36]. Status is also obviously affected by successes in military and other fields, but the king is cautioned to rely on strengthening his own power before embarking upon foreign adventures. According to Kautilya, and here is one of the more interesting portions of his analysis, the kings status read national pow er determines his foreign policy. That policy differs according to whether it is directed toward kings who are superior, inferior or equal to him. The bulk of the international portions of the Arthashastra are a discussion of the policies that may be appropriately pursued by superior or inferior kings[37]. Postulates Of Foreign Policy 22. As a political realist, Kautilya assumed that every nation acts to maximize power and self-interest, and therefore moral principles or obligations have little or no force in actions among nations[38]. While it is good to have an ally, the alliance will last only as long as it is in that allys as well as ones own self-interest, because an ally looks to the securing of his own interests in the event of simultaneity of calamities and in the event of the growth of the enemys power[39]. Whether one goes to war or remains at peace depends entirely upon the self-interest of, or advantage to, ones kingdom: War and peace are considered solely from the point of view of profit. One keeps an ally not because of good will or moral obligation, but because one is strong and can advance ones own self-interest as well as the self-interest of the ally, for when one has an army, ones ally remains friendly, or (even) the enemy becomes friendly.[40] Because nations always act in their political, econ omic, and military self-interest, even times of peace have the potential to turn abruptly into times of war, allies into enemies, and even enemies into allies. Kautilya probably assumed that peaceful empires cannot last forever, and that conflict among smaller states is more common in history. 23. For Kautilya, this principle of foreign policy that nations act in their political, economic, and military self-interest was a timeless truth of his science of politics, or arthasastra. He did not believe that nations never act in an altruistic manner indeed, Kautilya advocated humanitarian acts that also coincided with ones self-interest but he did believe that one must assume, if entrusted with political or military power that ones neighbours will eventually act in their own interests. Put another way, one would be betraying ones own people if one did not assume a worst-case scenario. A nation forced to rely on the kindness of neighbouring states is weak and, unless it can change rapidly, doomed to destruction. 24. Arthashastra is concerned with the security and foreign policy needs of a small state, in an environment with numerous other small states. The scope for enlargement of this small state was limited to the Indian subcontinent. The area extending from the Himalayas in the north to the sea in the south and a thousand yojanas[41] wide from East to West is the area of operation of the King-Emperor'[42]. Territories beyond the subcontinent are not included, probably for the reason that the conqueror is expected to establish in the conquered territories a social order based on the Aryas dharma, varna and ashrama system. Kautilya perhaps considered the establishment of such a social order outside the limits of India impractical or even undesirable[43]. 25. The guiding principles which govern the Kautilyan theory of foreign policy are[44]:- (a) A king shall develop his state, i.e., augment its resources and power in order to enable him to embark on a campaign of conquest; (b) The enemy shall be eliminated; (c) Those who help are friends; (d) A prudent course shall always be adopted; (e) Peace is to be preferred to war; and (f) A kings behaviour, in victory and in defeat, must be just. 26. The first verse of {6.2}, ‘Sama vyayamau yogakshemayoryonih ‘The welfare of a state [ensuring the security of the state within its existing boundaries and acquiring new territory to enlarge it] depends on adopting a policy of non-intervention or overt action establish the basis for all foreign policy. 27. This non-intervention, a method designed to build up confidence between kings, is to be understood in a specialized sense. It is not a policy of doing nothing but the deliberate choice of a policy of keeping away from foreign entanglements, in order to enjoy the fruits of past acquisitions by consolidating them. 28. Vyayama, (industry or activity) implies an active foreign policy, Yoga, the objective of enlargement of ones power and influence, and, through these, ones territory. These are the two stages of policy. Both depend on the state making progress, either materially in terms of its treasury and army or diplomatically in terms of its relations with other states. 29. The problem of defence of a state is intimately bound up with the question of its foreign relations. It is from hostile states that the state needs to be defended. Foreign relations are mainly discussed from the stand point of the â€Å"Vijigisu†[45]. In other words, it seeks to show how a state, desirous of extending its influence and expanding its territory, should conduct its relations with foreign states. A states position is determined by its relative progress or relative decline vis-a-vis other states in the neighbourhood. 30. The most important of a kings neighbours is the ‘enemy. Among the states surrounding a kingdom, there is always one who is the natural enemy. Presumably, this is the one neighbour who has designs on the king and, in the absence of any action, will be out to attack the king. The other neighbours may be hostile (aribhavi), friendly (mitrabhavi) or vassal (bhrityabhavi). There may also be a small buffer state between the king and the enemy (antardih). However, the main target of the conqueror is always the designated natural enemy; ‘one cannot make peace with an enemy'[46]. The reason for many aspects of the analysis of foreign policy being couched in terms of the conqueror out manoeuvring the enemy, is that the enemy is also the target of the diplomacy of the conqueror. When the conditions are ripe, a military campaign will be undertaken against him. 31. Allies are important; in fact, allies are described as a ‘constituent element of a state, the only external constituent. An alliance is based on giving help. â€Å"A friend is ever a well-wisher†[47]. Kautilya gives us a comprehensive analysis of the type of kings with whom an alliance is desirable and the types of allies based on their character and motivation. 32. Since prudence should always govern choice of policy, Kautilya is against both spineless submission and foolhardy valour[48]. Therefore, peace should always be preferred to war: ‘When the degree of progress is the same in pursu Mary Shelleys Frankenstein: Romanticism Analysis Mary Shelleys Frankenstein: Romanticism Analysis Mary Shelleys Frankenstein uses many elements of both Gothic literature and Romantic literature. Being written in 1818 the novel was placed well in the romantic era. Frankenstein uses very descriptive language to create beautiful scenery but also dark suspenseful settings. The novel works very well to balance out the true gothic nature of the novel with the romantic period in which it is set in. Frankenstein has a very dark underlying theme of death and revenge. There is also an incredible amount of emotion not only in the love Victor feels but also in the hatred the monster lets fester. There are many things that make Frankenstein a romantic novel, but the true underlying theme and the overpowering dark imagery is what makes Frankenstein a gothic novel. Frankenstein uses dark scenery to build suspense and foreshadow the events to come. When Victor is about to breathe life into the monster he describes how it was on a dreary night of November (Shelley, 34). This is a subtle sign that things are not about to go as planned. The birth of the monster will be a turning point in Victors life and one he will come to regret. Further in the same chapter the dark scenery tells the reader of Victors mistake. Victor states that he felt impelled to hurry on, although drenched from the rain which poured from a black and comfortless sky. (Shelley, 36). The sky is a representation of Victors wrong doing. He should not have created life so easily and carelessly. Many gothic novels will have a setting like a castle to show that it is a gothic novel, however, Frankenstein is different. The novel requires the main characters to move around a lot and travel very far distances. In order to make up for this Mary Shelley uses an amazing amount of descriptiv e scenery, like the examples from chapter five, to show that it really is a gothic and not a romantic. Another gothic element that the novel has is the use of the supernatural. The monster in which Victor creates is made out of body parts which Victor had to collect and piece together. This makes the reader question whether or not they agree with Victors taboo practices. It is very dark to think about Victor digging up bodies to steal parts of them to use in a monster just so he can play God. It seems all too nonchalant in the novel but in reality, that would be horrific. Shelleys novel is not only a gothic but also a critique and an exploration of the romantic genre. All through the novel it is clear to see that Victor Frankenstein is a true romantic. He is overflowing with emotion and in the end is consumed by it. Victor is always looking to the impossible he wants to create life in his own image. The romantics were always looking for a bigger, brighter future, but Victor wanted to create it. Life and death appeared to me ideal bounds, which I should first break through and pour a torrent of life into our dark world. A new species would bless me as its creator and sourceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Shelley, 32). Victor is looking to become a God, he wants to create a new species that looks up to him as the almighty. This may be a critique on the romantics point of view. It is okay to look forward to a brighter future but what lengths would a man go to in order to create or mould that future. Through the novel, Victors whole life is torn apart by the monster whi ch he created. In creating the future, he destroyed his own. All this horror and death is set in a very hopeful and beautiful setting. The way that Shelley describes the scenery is very romantic, but with the theme of death and revenge the setting feels more like a satire. Some people believe that Percy Shelley, a romantic writer and Mary Shelleys husband, had a large amount of influence on the novel. Others believe that he even wrote the book in her name. This could explain the romantic feel of the novel. However, if it was Mary Shelley who wrote it herself then it is a clear and obvious critique of the romantic era and the novel goes a lot deeper than one might think at first glance. Frankenstein was written in 1818 and it shows in the scenery and views on science. The way that Victor creates the monster is a reference to Giovanni Aldini. Aldini used electricity to make a slaughtered ox head spasm and appear to move like it was alive. Victor creates the monster in such a way but the monster actually comes alive rather than twitching on a table. With an anxiety that almost amounted to agony, I collected the instruments of life around me, that I might infuse a spark of being into the lifeless thing that lay at my feet. (Shelley, 34). Shelley wanted to create the same shock and horror that Aldini did when he made the ox head move in front of an audience. This shows just how misunderstood science was by the general public. Since many principles of science were misunderstood Shelley equated science to magic and it was believable. The novel also reveals how society was very unaccepting and cold. Victor is scared to reveal his creation for fear that he would be called a monster for bringing such a horrific being to life. I avoided explanation and maintained a continual silence concerning the wretch I had created. I had a persuasion that I should be supposed mad, and this in itself would forever have chained my tongue. (Shelley, 136). Victor cannot get the monster out of his head, he feels it must be kept a secret and a burden only he can bear. However, Victor is so caught up in keeping it a secret that everything he says sounds crazy. His own father thinks he is mad and Victor knows this. He is afraid that he will never be thought a credible scientist again if the world finds his creation. The way that Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein is very interesting and takes a few reads and some deeper research to understand. Upon first glance it appears a regular gothic about a monster and his creator, but after a few more reads one can see the deeper romantic influence and the critique of the romantic view. The novel is a perfect gothic which relates itself to the society it was written for and the horror it looks to instil. The dark theme and questionable actions of the main character truly bring out the gothic nature in this novel. The way Victor tries to create the future he looks for is horrific and ultimately a failure. This is used to show that the romantics are dreamers and reality will create its own future. One man cannot create life and toy with the future so easily. Destiny cannot be escaped and dreaming of a better future is futile. The novel creates a feeling of despair in the reader. One can only hope for a better future and trying to create one like Victor will on ly end in catastrophe. This underlying, deeper meaning of the novel is what makes Frankenstein a true gothic novel. Works Cited Shelley, Mary Frankenstein. New York: Dover, 1994. Smith, Nicole. Elements of Romanticism in Frankenstein by Mary Shelley. Article Myriad.   Dec 6, 2011. http://www.articlemyriad.com/elements-romanticism-frankenstein/ Gothic Literature. The Gothic Experience. Brooklyn College. October 24, 2002. http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/gothic/gothic.html