Explain the origins of the term BRICS

Explain the origins of the barrier BRICSSubmitted byFull touch(s) IsabelFull Sur make Rodrguez RodrguezTHE ORIGINS OF THE BRICSIntroductionJim ONeill coined in 2001 a new acronym that could threat the set up world purchase order after the Cold War suggesting that four uphill economies willing dominate it by 2050. These countries ar Brazil, Russia, India and China shaping the countersignature BRIC and, from 2011 southeasterly Africa, added an S to the experimental condition and becoming BRICS. The aim of this sample is to bring the reader closer to the creation of this aforementioned block so discussed in the past decade. I will argue that although in the beginning could be understood as a term exclusively associated with investment in the countries mentioned supra, it had been changed into a block of cooperation with a common objective exhaust a stronger go in the worlds politics. In the commencement exercise paragraph, I will explain the origin of the term BRIC by Gold man and Sachs, in the second I will do a brief analysis ofthe first summit of the group and the relevance of it and finally, in the third one I will argue that BRICS are non lonesome(prenominal) meant for trade but similarly politics.DiscussionThe term BRIC appears for the first time in 2001 to refer to the emerging economies of Brazil, Russia, India and China in a paper called Building Better Global scotch BRICs2 written by Jim ONeill and published by the American investment bank Goldman Sachs. In the schoolbook, Jim ONeill argues that we cannot underestimate the countries mentioned below beca role those will be the future world powers. These countries were selected because its impressive economic growth, on that pointfore they will be crucial in worlds gross domestic product. According to the author, China and India will become the suppliers of operate and technology while Brazil and Russia would do the same for raw materials. In fact, even in the more pessimistic scenari o (extrapolating the growing rate of 2000 in future long time), in the following 10 years, the BRICs would reach a 12% in worlds GDP, pushed by China that will be the fifth largest thrift in the world. For this reason, BRICs must have more representation in international forums and reach a vocalization voting, in special in G7 (Germany, Canada, United States, France, Italy and the United Kingdom) suggesting that they should change in a G9 in order to guarantee a correct representation. Two years later, in 2003, Goldman Sachs published another paper called daydream With BRICs The Path to 20503 claiming that BRICS would have a larger GDP than the G6 by 2050. However, the BRICs hypothesis has critics that claim that the term was created to promote the emerging countries as solid economies for long-term investment through a new motley from just developing countries to BRIC in the same agency that is more attractive to say Asian Tigers than the name of the four countries themselves. 4 Even the acronym suggests the image of a brick solid, compact and heavy that it is aligned with the title of the first above mentioned paper. The title of the second paper dream with BRICS the path for 2050 also suggests that readers imagine the potential profit for the emerging economies of BRICs5. It shows the interest of Goldman Sachs in their own business, that its sell financial services. Probably we will not know for real if it was just a way to promote their products of emerging countries, but is it undeniable that it was used as a catalyser for the economies involved.6Although the Goldman Sachs paper was published in 2001, the first BRICs summit was not held until 2009 in Yekaterinburg (Russia), despite the converse started in 2006 in New York7. It was attended by the leaders Lula da Silva (from Brazil), Medvedev (Russia), Singh (India) and Jintao (China). It is relevant the year, in the middle of the financial crisis they needed to show strength, stability, and confiden ce as President Lula claimed We stand out because in recent years our four economies have shown robust growth. Trade between us has risen calciferol% since 2003. This helps explain why we now generate 65% of world growth, which makes us the main hope for a swift recovery from global recession (Lula da Silva 2009). It is not difficult to understand why even if we would think the forecast of Goldman Sachs was not realistic it was highly relevant the first summit if we construe the data of the countries involved. First, there are big countries, they represent the 40% of the surface area of the world and lastly, there are in strategic positions. Second, there are countries with dense nation, in fact, they are the largest countries by population having a 50% of the worlds population. Third, regarding economics there contribute with a 22% of the worlds GDP, creation relevant the impressive growth rates, especially the case of China that did reach almost a 15% of growth in 20078. It is also to highlight the third summit in Sanya (China) in 2011 in which South Africa joined the BRICs, adding an S to the acronym and becoming BRICS.However, we cannot forget how different these countries are, as a matter of fact, they do not even pct the same political ideology and they have some very diverse perspectives on topics much(prenominal) as nuclear weapons. Then, why would they want to cooperate? Cooperation creates less dependence of the West in monetary value of trade, especially because they were no longer indulgent with the previous agreement of the World Trade presidency that shows the influence of the United States and European Union9. Cooperation also promotes the trade between the members, in 2001 was 21 million dollars in contrast to 280.000 million in 2014, it is to say that the trade rose more than 13 times.10 Also, together they have much more talk terms power to balance the hegemony of the West, the representation on the financial institution such as Worl d Bank or world-wide Monetary Fund is very low11. In fact, the clear of the IMFs quotas in 2010 could be seeing as a direct success for the BRICS although it became effective in 2016.12 Others scholars believe that the real goal of the BRICs summit was a call for cooperation between the countries due to the similarities of their issues (poverty, health headache or food security) that is to say the transition towards a middle-income status.13 It is undeniable that the relationship between them is at least singular because they think that the BRICS is meant for cooperation and not for conflict, the guiding principles are non-interferenceand national sovereignty14. For instance, Brazil did not criticise Russias appropriation of Crimea showing to the world a united front15. As evidence shows it is much more than an intra-cooperation, the Russian chair said The global problems cannot be effectively solved without the involvement of the BRICs countries16 which give an idea of the pol itical relevance that they wanted to achieve. The advantages of cooperation are not just relative to trade but also politics.ConclusionThe BRIC was an acronym coined by Jim ONeill to refer to the emerging economies of Brazil, Russia, India and China. Although there is evidence that the term could help to promote financial products, it was also a catalyser for the economies involved. Although it took 8 years for the idea behind the BRICs to make true and another two years to became BRICS with a capital S standing for South Africa, the five countries have impressive figures in terms of population, GDP and growth which lead to a very successful cooperation. Despite that they do not share some core values (for instance, ideology) they cooperate showing to the world a united front thank to the principle of no-interference. Together, they have the tools to promote trade between them but also to reach more bargaining power in order to balance the West in worlds politics. The BRICS is not o nly a coalition for promoting trade or discuss domestic issues but also a way to make sure that their voice is heard.1 Assignment RequirementsEach participant is expected to submit a 2,000 word essay.The written piece should include a rigorous analysis of key issues raised and their validity the text should be clear, readable, and follow standard academic publishing conventions, including appropriate quoting, footnoting and bibliographic referencing.Your essay can carry around 10% more or less words of the required word counting, i.e around degree centigrade words more or less than 2000.The following is a suggested format that you are expected to useFont type and size Arial at 11 pointLine spacing 1.5Alignment full justified.Prior to typing in/pasting the contents of your assignment on page two of this document, please hear that your text has been formatted in accordance with the above requirements as you wont be able to format it indoors this document.Prior to resignation, ple ase name the finalised and formatted document in accordance with the following pattern Surname Name Module 1 Final Essay, e.g. Doe John Module 1 Final EssayThe deadline for submission of written piece is Thursday 23rd March before 1700.Please submit your assignments via LSE GDP 2017 Custom Programme Moodle webpage.2 Jim ONeill, Building Better Global Economic BRICs Global Investment Research, Goldman Sachs, 2001 acquirable at http//www.goldmansachs.com/our-thinking/archive/archive-pdfs/build-better-brics.pdf3 Dominic Wilson, Roopa Purushothaman Dreaming With BRICs The Path to 2050 Global Investment Research, Goldman Sachs ,2003. Available at http//www.goldmansachs.com/our-thinking/archive/brics-dream.html4 Leon Wansleben, Dreaming with BRICs, Journal of cultural Economy 6, no.4 (2013) p.4 doi10.1080/17530350.2012.756826.5 Ibid.6 Ibid., p.67 Oliver Stuenkel, Emerging Powers and Status The Case of the First Brics Summit. Asian Perspective 38, no. 1. p.3 http//vex.com/vid/amerging -powers-status-brics-summit-494287502.8 Data IMF. World Development Indicators Accessed 10 March, 2017 http//data.worldbank.org/datacatalog/world-development-indicators9 Zaki Ladi, BRICS soverignity power and weakness International Politics 49, no. 5 (2012) 614-32., p.5 doi10.1057/ip.2012.17.10 WTO database Datos Comerciales y Arancelarios Accessed 10 March, 2017 Available at https//www.wto.org/spanish/res_s/statis_s/its2015_s/its15_highlights_s.pdf11 Michael Cox, Towards a BRIC world? Lecture, London School of Economics Custom Programs, 7th march 201712 Stuenkel, Emerging Powers and Status p., 213 Stuenkel, Emerging Powers and Status p., 1114 Pedro Morazn et al., The role of BRICS in the developing world p., 5 (Luxembourg EUR-OP, 2012)15 Stuenkel, Oliver. wherefore Brazil Has not Criticised Russia over Crimea. The Norwegian Peacebuilding Resource Centre. https//www.files.ethz.ch/isn/180529/65655a04cd21b64dbcc9c8a823a8e736.pdf.16 Oliver Stuenkel, Brics And The Future Of Global Ord er Lanham Lexington Books, 2016.

Women And Homophobia In Sports Media Essay

Women And Homophobia In Sports Media EssayViolence and Sport a book written by Michael Smith was an excellent culture material that portrayed domainy assorted aspects on sports. It will al number one the reader to see how violent sports lose gotten over time as well as otherwise mainstream issues that occur on non just in the United States only if as well as on a global level. It is as well ren professed how violence is perceived as a serious social problem and that t present is no doubt that the levels of violence has risen over the past couple of decades and how race, women, and homophobia has played a role in world of sports. This is an ongoing issue even today in the modern get on and it will getting even a considerable amount of time and effort to correct the problems that we atomic number 18 facing in sports transaction with race, women, and homophobia in competitive sports.It was stated by John Walsh, Senior Vice President and Executive editor of the sports cabl e network ESPN claims, Sports give way moved from being a subculture to be approach shot a major military posture in the Statess social and heathenish landscape. (CNN, 2010) Society demonstrates to be sympathetic to inviting sports into their culture. The passion over sports issues can come to the intensity of political debates. According to the U.S. News poll on CNN, this mindset constitutes about a deuce-ace of the adult population and is mainly comprised of a population who inquire that they play sports at least a couple of times a calendar week or the ones who watch sports matches on television, several times during the week (Banks, 2009). Societys meshing in sports involves issues and biases dealing with the minority groups such as gender, ethnicity and homosexuality. Societys labels and limitations in the sport world be slowly starting to liquefy. The athletic continuum is starting to become a popular stylus for hunting lodge to utter its cultural diversity, aw ato mic number 18ness and acceptance allowing mass to experience a feeling of heimat. According to Banks, the idiom of sports is the way that many Americans and countries feel most engaged and comfortable, talking about racial issues, standards of excellence, comparative worth, even just and wrong. (Banks, 2009)Many countries atomic number 18 moving forward in their positive thinking of sports. The Olympics was once noted as the war of nations and how it was a sense of belonging to that soulfulnessrepresenting their particular country. In this day in age it nonetheless is. For example when Jusain Bolt won the 100 and 200 and broke the record for both. Many Americans were tied(p) to that record beca pulmonary tuberculosis it was set by an American and now we no longer hold the record the Jamaicans do and is commitd to hold for years to come. as yet, now stack enjoy admiring and applauding individual talent regardless of the athletes origin, yet still maintaining that feeling of heimat. Athletics has become a major beneficial and influential power towards any nations society as a whole. The Bozell poll survey, which is conducted by CNN that obtains mints opinion, states, that Americans think spectator sports start a positive impact on society and that competitive sports alleviate children to learn valuable life lessons that they will carry with them done their adult life. The poll also reveals that it is a possibility that the lessons of sports provide a positive outlook in other lifes issues. It is strongly believed with ninety one percent consider participation in sports help people broaden their mind in dealing with those from variant racial or ethnic background cardinal percent agree that sports help people to become better parents, and sixty eight percent believe that sports could help people get along better with people of who is of the opposite genders. (Bozell Poll Survey, 2004)The involvement in womens sports is rapidly growing across the gl obe. During the time of 1971-72 roughly thirty thousand women were participating in college sports and by 1994-95 their participation rate sky rocketed to over 110,000. In high school the involvement levels rose from 300,000 to much than than 2 million. (Hoberman, 1999) Important historical events in history have thrust women into the world of sports. Upon performing more research it is noted, dating back to the 1800s the first known womens golf tournament is held at the Mussleburgh Golf parliamentary law in Scotland among the women who were local fishwives, the first intercollegiate womens tennis club started in 1881 at Smith College, and virtually 1896 a woman living in Athens ran themarathon. During the 1900swomen were starting to perform in the Olympics in genus Paris and slowly started to diffuse into other countries allowing more participation from women. The All American Girls Professional Baseball compact was formed during the mid 1900s, a sex chromatin test for women a thletes was introduced as a prerequisite for Olympic competition, the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women was organized to enforce sport opportunities for college women, forcing the NCAA to allow women participants in college and soon after(prenominal) Title IX is imposed. (Smith, 2001) Title IX is a huge force towards the positive cultural vogue for women in sports in America. Title IX was passed in 1972 and allowed provided guaranteed equal access and probability for women in end-to-end all college sports. Recruiting, scholarships and athletic benefits were made widely available. The new law helped to view the seriousness of the female athletes and helped to pulverise the outdated views of women in sports.Diversity and sensitivity training is starting to become a major localize in high schools, universities and corporations throughout the world. (Smith, 2001) Several workshops and seminars strive to educate, dispel and aid in rebuild the institutions ideas on gender equality. Huge strides by the male gender are being made to exercise the advise womens roles in sports. An example is the mens wrestling and rugby teams at Northeastern University organize an annual breakfast in honor of National Girls and Women in Sports Day still today. The Womens Sports Foundation is one of many different organizations melodic phrase for gender equality in sports across the nation and globe. Their main goal is To Promote the lifelong participation of all girls and women in sports and fitness, and to create an educated public that encourages females participation and supports gender equality. (King, 2008) non only are support groups and foundations fighting for the rights of women in sports but the media is also attempting to support the growth of female athletes in both college and professional sports. However this is not the only emerging problem within the sport world. Many people have a weird fear and discrimination of people who are homosexual or d ifferent than them.Homophobia is emerging as a huge issue in womens sports and not so much in mens. Although society to a certain extent has become slightly more accepting of homosexuality in general, some women are about intimidated from sport by fear of being classified as a lesbian. (Smith, 2001) Homophobia is real life issue but serious positive ways of thinking are being made. Gay rights activists and other supportive groups such as Gay, Lesbian BGLAD, have joined alliances to help fight the discrimination of homosexuals involved in sports. Gay magazines, newspapers, books and websites help everyone in the society to understand and jimmy all individuals regardless of sexual preference and are being diffused into different cultures across the world. Because of this many people are being educated of the different rights that homosexuality has and that they are no different from mortal who is heterosexual. Some major steps are being taken such as by the man named Eric Gumby And erson the first openly gay high school track coach in America has noted his long struggle to bridge the huge gap between sports and being gay. Even though Erics quirkiness was highly criticized with strong opposition he believed that he had something to attest to the world dealing with gay coaches or even gay athletes. Anderson would like to make an impact on high school athletes anywhere and everywhere. another(prenominal) act of revealing their true identity and who they are is an article Coming Out Part 1 and Part 2 about a high school, varsity captain football player coming out to the community. Corey Johnson from Massachusetts did not want to hide his secret any longer from all of his family and friends. However some community members expressed their detestation towards him, the majority of the community accepted him with open arms and gnomish hostility. Coreys teammates were amenable to the situation and Corey continued to be the co-captain of the football team and become a massive paradigm in the gay activist community. Corey Johnsons announcement was seen as a visionary act. Coreys situation is a keen moment for society and could possiblyperhaps help to prove to be another positive cultural influence through sports. With Corey and Coach Anderson coming out openly to the public this is believed to prove to be a step in a positive direction. This will help with gay, lesbian, and bisexuals everywhere. Women and homosexuals are just two groups of minorities in sports. Children and adults of color and poor socio-economic communities have historically been rejected from the world of athletics. (Smith, 2001) Many different organizations and support groups have been formed to cultivate minority participation in sports.Noted by Michael Smith, Inner City Handball Associates helps children of low economic backgrounds and different ethnicities to become involved in sport. Their mission is To give every child the opportunity to explore their full potential and develop an academically disciplined mind and a strong wellness body. To help nurture a strong sense of pride and motivate our youth to be the scoop at whatever they choose to be. While also encouraging the youth to volunteer, to help rebuild and tone their communities creating their own positive role models for future generations to follow. In the past decades minorities have been place in somewhat of a caste system. The black athletes were always the football players or the basketball players and the sports like golf and tennis were for whites majority of the time. (Smith, 2001) Minorities absence in sports has drawn the attention of Former President Clinton. In the article, Clinton Needles Sports World for Not Hiring Minorities, he addressed the fact the minorities are not being hired as coaches and administrators in college and in professional sports. He also stated, Ive hired hundreds and hundreds of minorities as governor the governor of Arkansas and as presidents of differen t organizations, Clinton said. Nobody ever accused me of giving jobs to people that werent qualified. (Constantine, 1997).Advancements for the inclusion of minorities in sports have been noted since then. major(ip) improvements have occurred since then. Some of these examples are an increase in college and professional football coaches as well as basketball, administration positions have been earned by many minority educators, and even now an African American president. When one observes the sport world in the European countries it has changed quite significantly during the past few decades. It use to be that blacks were not allowed to participate with whites in rugby and other sports so they were forced to create their own leagues but were allowed to play against the stronger white leagues. (Goldstein, 1983) However now this is not the case major changes were made and are not like this anymore. Also noted by Clinton is by saying, it is obvious that athletics are jumper lead Americ a towards a better, more harmonious society, and that he look forward tod that those involved in sports would also learn sizable life skills and to make good decisions. Its important that the lessons they learn carry over to good citizenship, including attitudes about people of different races. (Constantine, 1997)Michael Smith provides some detailing information on minorities entering the NASCAR field that is predominately still white. He highlights the struggle for minorities to break into the stereotypically white world of racecar driving. Wendell Scott became the one and only African American to win the NASCAR in 1963, afterwards no other African American could followbehind him in his footsteps. Now African Americans are slowly being turned onto NASCAR not only as fans but also as racers at times. However African Americans still have yet to become drawn in as a major force to perform among the high level of NASCAR. Though racial inequality exists, NASCAR is move for a more pos itive cultural acceptance of diversity in the society of sports. Well we hope the racial climate reflects America. Thats what we want the sport to reflect. I mean we feel this is possible the most American professional sport there is stated Richard Petty. He also stated that, Whether they are red white or purple theyre welcome to try just like anyone else. At one point in time there were two black race car owners, basketball great Julius Erving and former Redskins course back Joe Washington have spent a few unsuccessful years in the Busch Series, but do not blame racism. (Smith, 2001)NASCAR and most athletic organizations admit willingly that racial equality has not yet been achieved in the society of sports. Optimistically the trend of diversity could possibly continue in America and make a positive cultural influence in todays society. It is a noticeable trend that other countries athletes are becoming popular in America. This succeeds in not only diversifying sports but also inc luding a globalization perspective to include other countrys cultural aspects of sport and helping with the issue of equality. Many organizations have been formed worldwide to open up athletic opportunities to people of all ethnicities and to serve as an interchange of culture.Societys labels are progressively losing their footholds in the world of sports. Though it is hard to dispute that Americans and other countries have a long way to fully achieve equality in sports, accept homosexuals in sport, and different races and ethnicities,I believe that it is safe to say that a movement towards a positive cultural influence of sports in society is obvious. I believe that the book Violence and Sport is a book worth reading and isvery educating in dealing with different aspects of life, different sports and different views into how people perceive sport as their sense of belonging or how sport is slowly starting to diffuse into different countries cultures including some here in America where different races are breaking ground in different sports and accepting that person for who they are and not caring of their race, gender, or sexuality.

Post Harvest Management of Fruits

transmit Harvest Management of FruitsIndia, a place of variations of different agroclimatic regions, rich in diversified horticultural flora. India universe the largest throwr of fruits and second largest aimr of vegetables. But unfortunately the average Indian remains aloof from the prefatorial requirements of fruits and vegetables. As a result of which there is a huge gap between gross take and net availability.All these is because of the inefficient post growth management ,a significant portion of production is incapacitated after reaping-tide. Post harvest departurees accounts to slightly 25 30 % of production. Just to feed the bursting existence of india, maximising al ane the production and productivity will not be enough. Efficient post harvest treatment and processing is mere essential to make available much food (fruits) to the mankind.Post harvest passagees of fruitsPost harvest losings of fruits can be defined as a loss in quantity or quality or both that o ccurs after harvest and till the produce reaches to the consumers. There may be physical loss, physiological loss or biological losses.Physical loss it occurs due to injury in fruits at the time of harvesting,handling and transportation.Physiological loss it occurs due to physiological processes of ventilation and transpiration. Transpirational loss of moisture results in shriveled appearance of the commodities.Biological losses it occurs due to macrobiological and microbiological agents equal bacteria, kingdom Fungi ,yeast etc.Post harvest management practicesSorting or gradingSorting is done in order to discard rotten, damaged, diseased, misshaped and overriped fruits before spreading infection to other healthy commodities.Grading is a put to work of grouping the fruits according to the firmness, cleanliness, size, weight, colour, shape and maturity.WashingThe produce is cleaned or washed in order to train the dirt, dust ,insects, moulds .exception onion, garlic, okra, mush room argon not washed. For surface decontamination , Chlorinated water(100 ppm) is effective.after this,the fruits be again washed with clean water. curingCuring is a means of natural wound healing process. It is a process of changeing a corked layer against water loss and infection.WaxingIt is a process of application of waxy layer on the skin of the fruits to reduce moisture loss, shrievelling and to extend the remembering life. Paraffin wax, carnauba wax and various resins are common types of waxes used. Waxol is a common coating material.Pre- aplombingThe process of removal of passionateness from the just harvested fruits particularly during sultry weather is called pre cooling. It helps in decreasing the transpiration rate, respiration rate,ripening providing an ease to transport and storage. The methods are room cooling, forced fashion cooling, hydro cooling, vacuum cooling etc.Hot water treatmentIt is a process of eradicating or cleanup the infectious organism on sever al fruits. For inactivation of infection by Phytopthora sp. In tomato and oranges , Colletotrichum in papaya, mango and crown rot in banana , dip in hot water at 50+- 2degree C for 1-2 minutes. Hot water treatment of mango results in uniform ripening.Vapour heat treatmentIt is termed as an ecofriendly treatment almostly applicable for fruit flies mostly mango. It is initially overpriced and cannot be used much by small and marginal farmers. Total treatment time for mangoes is approximately 195 minutes.Regulation of ripeningRipening of fruits like mango, banana can be regulated or is carried pop out in special treatment rooms with controlled temperatures with low application of ethylene. Release of ethylene occurs where fruits along with etherel basic solution is placed in a closed chamber. Ripening process is delayed and extension of shelf life is done by removing ethylene from storage atmosphere using ethylene absorbent. promotionPackaging is a process to assemble the produce into convenient units of handling and to protect the produce during distribution , storage and marketting. It is a means of prolonging the storage life. For packaging cushioning materials should be used.(paper shreds, paddy straw, thermocole). Packaging of fresh produce is done with bamboo baskets, sacks, wooden or plastic crates etc. corrugated fibre board(CFB)cartons being polar flat a days for transport of fruits as they are of lighter weight and cheaper cost. Aseptic packaging, modified atmospherical packaging and controlled packaging are some sunrise(prenominal) innovations of packaging.TransportationIt is a phase of movement of fruits from one place to another, performed by, means of rail,truck,airplane and ship.effective transportation doesnot help if there is no proper handling.in many developed countries pallets are used for trading of horticultural produce.MarkettingFruits have a high degree of perishability so marketting problems are more in fruits. NHB(National horticu ltural board) provides good market intelligence service for horticultural products.NDDB, HOPCOM are few of marketting organizations for good of growers and consumers.StorageThe process of maintaining life processes of fruits upto a required level till it reaches the consumers avoiding market glut is called storage.Methods preserve storage storage of perishable commodities at the lowest temperature without any chilling injury is refrigerated storage.it powerfully retards moisture loss and spoilage by microorganisms.Controlled or modified storage- it is a process of adjusting the atmospheric topic of air surrounding the fruits different from that of normal air. it involves reduction in O2 and elevation of CO2 concentrations.Hypobaric storage- it is a form of storage in which the produce is stored in partial vacuum.it is maintained to the desired low pressure by vacuum pump. It is limited to high value crops.Zero energy cool chamber- this zero energy cool chamber works on the princi ple of evaporative cooling using locally available materials like brick, sand and bamboo.as compared to surrounding atmosphere the temperature in the chamber is less.Conclusion Post harvest loss is all the same more serious than that of production loss. It is impossible to deny from complete protection of post harvest losses but it can be minimized to some extent by following some of the advance(a) cultural,harvesting,handling,marketting and processing techniques. Thus it must be kept in mind that operationalization of improved post harvest technologies must be intensively developed in our country through technology refinement, industrial liasion so that we dont face any productive losses and people can acquire nutrients from fruits to the most , as per requirements.References.Name of the books 1. Post harvest management of horticultural crops. Edited by M.A. MIR, G.M. BEIGH, HAFIZA AHSAN QUAZI NISSAR AHMAD, H.R.NAIK,A.H. RATHER.2. Basics of horticulture. editor program K.V Pet er. Chapter no. 11. Post harvest management of fruits and vegetables, page no 497-506.Champ ,b.r ,highley ,E and Johnson ,G.I 1993. Post harvest handling of tropical fruits .proceedings of International conference held at Chiang mai,Thailand 19-13 july 1993.Mitra ,S.K .1997. postharvest physiology and storage of tropical and subtropical fruits CAB international new york.Salunkhe, D.K and Desai ,B.B 1984 post harvest biotechnology of fruits. Vol1 2 .CRC press, florida.Rao , S.D .V 2004 pre storage treatment for minimisation of post harvest losses in fruits . training manual on minimisation of post harvest losses in fruits set up by IIHR, bangalore.

Copyright Laws in Education

procure Laws in EducationAbstractThis musical theme is to give information on the secure laws, Fair aim bear and the obligation of the classroom teacher to follow secure laws. Within the paper, you go out find different copyright laws and the reflection of that case or law. Lastly, you lead read how important it is for teachers to understand copyright laws and how they can affect the teacher. I hope this paper gives the information needed to give the basic of copyright Laws and background to the development of the copyright laws. accord to the Association of Research Libraries, the news report of the Copyright law originated with the introduction of the printing press to England in the latterly fifteenth century (ARL 2017). Due to the rising number of printing presses, takings needed to be controlled. Across Europe, book fruit exploded and in that location was an immediate need for protection of the rights of both the author and botherer from the so unrivaledst of li terary pirates (HOC PP1). Per De Montfort University, copyright is a term utilize to define the level-headed property right subsisting in various works which result from the judgment of the creator. There were many laws created for copyright to not happen 1787- U.S Constitution, 1790- Copyright make, 1853- Stowe Vs. Thomas, 1891- internationalist Copyright Treaty, 2005- Family Entertainment and Copyright Act. These were passed to ensure that no person was incriminate of copyright infringement.History of Copyright Laws Why they were passedA few laws that I will sh be argon 1787, this was when the ac goledgement of copyright was placed into the get together States Constitution. According to the U.S Constitution, it acress that the authors and inventors would have their work secured for a limited time and could be renewed every fourteen years (ARL.org). In 1790, the first copyright law was passed, this secured maps, charts, and books of authors. According to the ARL, it grant ed American authors the right to print, reprint, or publish their work. For the next copyright law, I wanted to share Stowe vs Thomas in 1853. I love books so why not share a case that shows how copyright laws affect individuals. Harriet Beecher Stowe sued a German publisher by the name of F.W Thomas (ARL). Beechers book, Uncle Toms Cabin, was translated into German and sold in the United States without Beechers permission. So, nonetheless though you did not take the words to make them your own, there are still consequences for the actions taken. As shown on ARL.org, copyright can happen to anyone and anywhere. With that be said, profits could not be made in European countries. Authors, publishers and printers linked together to support international copyright (ARL, Vaidhyanathan 50-55). Now for the last one that everyone knows and see every time they watch a movie. Per ARL, the Family Entertainment and Copyright Act was enacted in April of 2005. This copyright law was created to give criminal penalties to individuals who may have recorded a movie while in the field of battle or those who may stream movies illegally. These laws were passed to ensure safety to not whole authors, and publishers but also to ensure that individuals do not face proximo criminal charges.Fair Use Act How it applies to TeachersWhat is the Fair Use Act? According to the OCPS.net, Fair Use lets secure material be practiced under certain guidelines, without the copyright holders permission, for purposes such as news reportings, teaching, research, review article and parody. As far as teachers are concerned, though the Fair Use Act is in place, they should still consider taking the appropriate actions when employ information that does not belong to them. Classroom teachers often photocopy readings and worksheets. Did you know that it could be copyright infringement if you make too many? According to Brighthub Education, if you are sued for copyright, you can use the Fair Use A ct to your defense. The speak to would use the following factorsThe purpose and character of the useThe nature of the copyrighted workThe amount and substantially of the portion usedThe effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.Teachers Ethical agreement to follow copyright lawsAccording to Auburn.edu, teachers are constantly faced with opportunities to countenance or violate copyright laws. As an educator, you are to be headmaster and uphold your duties are a professional educator. One of the consequences could be end point of your job if you are found guilty of copyright infringement. It is important that teachers are aware of what constitutes Fair Use and abide by the rules set forwards by their school system (University, 2017). Teachers are at the center of growth of technology. Teachers are faced with so many problems related to copyright laws. (University, 2017). As per Auburn.edu, teachers must be the role model for their students and educate them on copyright laws and what they can do to avoid copyright infringement. We as future educators, are the heart and soul of children learning. We give them the skills they need to use in feel and to further their education. Throughout school, students will continue to write essays and be state tested on how they write. They want to give forth their best effort, as their teacher, you are the one who gives them this skill. Part of my personal ethics as an educator, I will strive to give my children the correct knowledge not but for everything education but copyright.References(n.d.). Fair Use Association of Research Libraries ARL. Retrieved February 22, 2017, from http//www.arl.org/focus-areas/copyright-ip/fair-use.WK2_djsrLIUCopyright and Fair Use for Teachers. (n.d.). Retrieved February 22, 2017, from https//www.ocps.net/lc/east/htc/mediacenter/Documents/FairUse.Explaining Copyright Law and How It Applies to Teachers What You Need to do About Fair Use, Making Cop ies More. (2015, August 31). Retrieved February 22, 2017, from http//www.brighthubeducation.com/teaching-methods-tips/6623-understanding-copyright-law-and-fair-use-for-teachers/Home. (n.d.). Retrieved February 22, 2017, from http//www.historyofcopyright.org/index.htmlWelcome to the Digital Citizenship. (n.d.). Retrieved February 22, 2017, from https//www.auburn.edu/citizenship/index.html

The General Adaptation Syndrome Psychology Essay

The General Adaptation Syndrome Psychology Essay prove is inescapably present in the lives of every living organism. While some filtrate fanny be beneficial, excessively much of it is al just about always disadvantageous. often prison terminals the word filter is use to describe the imposition of an undesirable mental or physical state through un dominancelable or consuming circumstances. We tend to think of vehemence as a burden that we expatriate around with us. One individual might perceive that they ar chthonic an enormous amount of focal point because of four-fold impending deadlines, slice other might feel tuneed out because their house is not modify and unexpected guests ar on their way. Despite the predominantly negative definition above, tense itself is not necessarily bad. In fact, variant is an adaptive change without which our survival would be seriously compromised. Moderate emphasize mickle rase collapse beneficial cause, much(prenominal) a s improving cognitive help to facilitate meeting multiple deadlines and accession energy supply to go throughs to right away clean the entire house in a matter of legal proceeding. However, too much or prolonged accent mark fuel issuing in a variety of detrimental personal effects on some(prenominal) physiological move and cognitive processes.DefinitionIn order to properly run into the effects of strain on cognition, as measured by act in a variety of mazes, we must jump come to an reason of what underscore is. At its core, try on is can be defined as the chemical reaction to a menace (or sensed little terror) against homeostasis, the tendency of a clay to maintain a stable subjective environment. Living organisms, including populace and gnawers, atomic number 18 dissonant ashess which bet to maintain homeostasis despite being constantly bombarded by numerous external environmental insults.HomeostasisThe concept of homeostasis was initially conceived b y the cut physiologist Claude Bernard in1854. He employ the term milieu intrierur to describe the energy of the internal environment (primarily the blood in Bernards judgment of conviction) of the personate to compensate for and re-equilibrate in result to the external environment 1,2. However, it was Walter shank who experienceed the concept of homeostasis. He pro make up up that the body maintained steady state conditions through multiple cooperative self-moving mechanisms. One phenomenon observed by waist was that organisms respond to a threat by releasing epinephrine (aka suprargonnal glandine) from the adrenal gland electric-light bulb thereby increasing the bodys union rate, respiration, and blood pressure while mobilizing glucose stores and inhibiting non-essential functions such(prenominal) as digestion and reproduction. This phenomenon is the prototypal sympathetic nervous scheme (a branch of the autonomic nervous system) receipt, for which carom coined the term fight-or-flight reaction 3. Simply put, when confronted with a threat, an organism, through the narrowing of corporate functions and mobilization of available energy, is primed to respond supplely, wh vinyl ether through fleeing or fighting. Thus, the autochthonic contri bargonlyion of Walter Cannon to the definition of underline was that in response to an environmental insult threatening the internal steady stated, the body lead ups the sympathetic response to maintain homeostasis and finally increase survival.General Adaptation SyndromeThe second major contri neverthelessor to tune research was endocrinologist Hans Selye. Selye was working to discover a refreshful horm adept by injecting ovarian extracts in to rats and observing the physiological effects. He far-famed some(prenominal) changes after injection of this extract, including the 1) enlargement of the adrenal gland, 2) the wither of the thymus and lymph nodes and 3) the presence of gastric ulcers 4. W hile he initially conceit these effects were direct effects of a novel hormone, through supererogatory control experiments he discovered that the injection of numerous agents, physical harm or even excessive exercise produced the same reliable effects 5. Emphasizing the non-specificity of this response, Selye called these effects the General Adaptation Syndrome initially and later used the term stress to describe it. He hike defined stressors as the factors or agents that triggered the stress response. In addition, Selye established the role of glucocorticoids, steroid hormones excreted from the adrenal cortex, in the stress response. Furthermore, Selye expound that prolonged word- troubleting to stressors (and the stress response) can lead to illness or disease.SummaryThe combined work of Walter Cannon and Hans Selye formed the basis of stress research. two agreed that when confronted with disruptive environmental factors, the body generated an adaptive response aimed at re- establishing homeostasis at bottom the internal environment. Cannon focused on the sympathetic branch of this response, while Selye focused on the hormonal (i.e., endocrine) branch of this response. Modern thinking has modified the conceptualization of stress, as it move out to be not quite as elementary as originally thought. Importantly it is no longer thought that stress is non-specific as the magnitude and more subtle characteristics of the stress response are varied based on the type of stressor, the individuals perception of the stress and ability to cope. The look outing basic features of stress can be gleaned from this historical workStressors are any event, experience or environmental insult that threatens or is perceived to threaten homeostasisStress is an adaptive response to re-establish and maintain homeostasisStress is ultimately middle(a)d by two branchesThe sympathetic nervous system via squirt of epinephrine from the adrenal medullaThe endocrine system via re lease of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortexThese definitions and characteristics are more conducive to scientific get hold of than the layman use of the term stress which does not distinguish surrounded by the trigger and the response, as described in the opening of this section. Thus, the definitions above go out be utilized in the fol first gearing sections. This chapter depart advertize develop these basic concepts and present 1) an overview of the stress response, 2) descriptions of the incompatible types of stressors, 3) the effects of two sharp and chronic stress on learning and fund and 4) practical elaborate on how to deal with the nuances of stress in behavioral testing.THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ACUTE latent hostility RESPONSEWhen a stressor is encountered, the header triggers a physiological response, aimed at grapple with the stressor and restoring homeostasis 6. This response is governed by the hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal (HPA) bloc and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). two of these systems are always promptly eng ancient in maintaining homeostasis, but when posed with a disruption to an organisms internal environment, the HPA axis of rotation and SNS go into overdrive. When stressors are encountered several central nervous system (CNS) structures are activated to initiate the stress response, including the preganglionic sympathetic neurons of the spinal cord in addition to several brain stem and limbic forebrain structures 7. These structures then recruit neural and neuroendocrine systems to initiate a stress response, culminating with the secretion of adrenal glucocorticoids (GCs) and epinephrine, the principle mediators of this adaptive response.The harmonized Nervous SystemTwo primary pathways are activated by stressors within the SNS, the brain norepinephrine neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC) and the sympathetic adrenomedullary circuitry. Many, but not all stressors result in norepinephrine release from the LC, wh ich ultimately contributes to the majority of circulating NE levels as comfortably as numerous adaptive behaviors 8,9. Activation of the sympathetic adrenomedullary circuitry via preganglionic neurons results in the release of the excitatory neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) onto postganglionic neurons and the adrenal medulla. Sympathetic postganglionic neurons primarily release of norepinephrine in a flash onto various sharpen organs. On the other hand, activation of the adrenal medulla results in the synthesis and release of epinephrine into the circulation and indirectly onto target organs. tush organs activated by these catecholamines neurotransmitters correspond directly to the symptoms of the fight-or-flight response, including change magnitude heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, pupil dilation, and inhibition of digestion, liver, kidney and gall bladder function.The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis of rotation (Figure 1 HPA axis from Lupien 2009 Review)The present chapter will focus on the endocrine branch of the stress response. While the activation of the sympathetic nervous system is a key part of stress, many of the effects of stress on learning and computer storage have been translaten to be dependent on GCs. The secretion of adrenal GC hormones is under the stimulatory drive of the medial parvocellular neurons in the paraventricular cell nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. In response to stressors, brainstem and limbic forebrain regions activate these neurons to free corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) and vasopressin into the hypophysial circulation to stimulate the antecedent pituitary to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) into the peripheral circulation which ultimately results in the release of GCs from the adrenal gland 10. GCs are carried to every organ via the circulation to throw overboard for a coordinated adaptive response between the brain and sensible functions. GCs mobilize energy, suppress immune and inflammatory responses, inhibit bone and muscle growth and reproductive function as come up as increase attention and impact learning and memory processes 11. GCs similarly regulate further CRH and ACTH release via negative feedback loops by binding receptors in the pituitary, PVN, genus Hippocampus (HPC) and prefrontal cortex (perfluorocarbon) to inhibit further GC release and to repay the homeostatic balance of the HPA axis 10 (Fig. 1). While these are the primary targets of GCs, most every neuron in the brain has receptors for these hormones. Thus, GCs are an important enabler of shape brain function in addition to their role in HPA axis function.Corticosterone (CORT), the primary GC in the rat, is the ligand for the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), steroid hormone receptors that function as transcription factors and regulate neuronal gene transcription. GR and MR have different affinities for CORT in the brain. GRs are expressed ubiquito usly in the brain, and are most concentrated in the CRH neurons of the PVN and ACTH releasing neurons in the anterior pituitary and besides in the HPC 10. The highest expression of MRs in the brain is in the HPC, though they are expressed in other forebrain regions 10. MRs are perfect(a) by modest levels of CORT, such as those generated during circadian oscillations, and thus mediate nonchalant changes in HPA axis military action. On the other hand, GRs are virtuous by more extreme levels of CORT, such as those seen following(a) a stressful experience, and mediate negative feedback to restore homeostasis 12,10.Time Course of the lancinate Stress Response (Figure 2 inception and fall of CORT)The typical stress response begins within a very perfectly pointedness of time. The SNS response occurs more rapidly than the HPA axis response, due to direct neurotransmitter release on target tissues vs. indirect hormonal release into the circulation, respectively. Within seconds, the post-ganglionic neurons of the SNS release norepinephrine and the adrenal medulla releases epinephrine into circulation. Also within seconds, CRH is released from the PVN of the hypothalamus, followed quickly by the release of ACTH into peripheral circulation from the anterior pituitary 13. Within 3-5 minutes, the adrenal cortex releases CORT into the circulation, by which time natural elevation plasma ACTH levels are reached. While peak levels of GCs vary according to stressor type and duration, circulating CORT levels typically reach peak levels15-30 minutes after stressor introduction 14. At this time ACTH levels have also returned to baseline 14. However, the effects of GCs on target tissues do not occur until about an hour after stressor initiation 13. After peak CORT levels are reached, negative feedback mechanisms shut down further CORT secretion so that circulating CORT levels recover to near baseline levels within 60-120 minutes after stressor initiation 15,14. The tim e required to reach baseline levels also varies depending on stressor type and duration. Circulating levels of norepinephrine and epinephrine follow a similar trajectory, but with more rapid increases and decreases 16.Biological Rhythms plasma levels of CORT are not static, but follow a circadian unit of ammunition that is closely aligned with the sleep-wake cycles. In both humans and rodents, plasma GCs rise as the sleep cycle (inactive variant) ends and peaks upon waking up. From this peak, GC levels fall during the active phase and eventually reach the circadian trough or nadir (the lowest point in the cycle) 17,18. However, as nocturnal animals, the active phase for rodents is during the dark period and the inactive phase occurs during the light period. Thus, in laboratory animals, peak CORT levels are found just after the lights are turned off and nadir CORT levels are measured when the lights are turned on. In addition, within this circadian cadence GCs are released in an ultradian (cycles repeated within the 24 hour period) pulsatile pattern which rises and falls according to the circadian rhythm 19. Basal levels of CORT measured in rats can typically range from 0-200 ng/mL in openhanded male rats or 100-500 ng/mL in adult female rats 18. In response to groovy stressors, peak stress levels of CORT world-widely range from 200-600 ng/mL in adult male rats and 500-1000 ng/mL in adult female rats. Both primary and peak stress levels of CORT can vary depending on the ingest time within the circadian rhythm.Sex, Age and tense DifferencesAs noted above, sex differences in HPA axis activity and responses to needlelike stressors are well documented. Female rodents exhibit higher ultra and stress defecated levels of both ACTH and CORT 20,21. Sex differences in CORT secretion are primarily mediate by oestrogen, with higher levels of ACTH and CORT found during proestrus, when circulating levels of estrogen are high 20,18. Much of the research on gona dal steroid decree of the HPA axis suggests that estrogen has excitatory effects while androgens have restrictive effects 22-26. In addition, females have higher levels of corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG), which partly buffers the higher levels of CORT 27,24. CBG binds circulating CORT and renders it biologically inactive 28,29. However, CBG levels take several hours to increase after movie to a stressor, resulting in higher levels of biologically active CORT in females in response to stressors 30.Acute stress responses can also vary across the lifespan. After birth, from day 2 to 14, rats experience a stress hyporesponsive period (SHRP) wherein circulating basal CORT remain very low and neonatal pups fail to specify an elevation in CORT in response to stress or ACTH administration31-33. Adolescence is the next victimizational epoch, which involves three stages pre-pubescence/ beforehand(predicate) adolescence (21-34 days), mid-adolescence (34-46 days) and late adolescen ce (46-59 days) 34,35. During early adolescence, rats exhibit an exaggerated HPA axis response to both acute and chronic stress compared to adults 36,37. In addition, sex differences in HPA axis function mature over the girlish period 38,39. The acute stress response has also been investigated in aging animals, though a capital deal of heterogeneity, particularly with respect to the aging model has been found 40. However, the general consensus, based on preceding studies, is that fourth-year animals exhibit elevated baseline (or basal) CORT and a prolonged stress-induced elevation in CORT release, possibly due to lessen GR-mediated negative feedback 41,42. It should also be noted that aging is associated with increased divergence in the acute stress response 40. Sex differences in acute HPA axis responses are not frequently examined in aged rats. However, since estrogen decreases with age, and males ground increased basal CORT, it would be expected that sex differences would reach less robust 43,44Robust strain differences in both basal and peak stress levels of CORT also exist. In general, the in bred Fischer 344 (F344) strain of rats unblock higher levels of both basal and stress induced CORT levels compared to both the intrinsic Lewis (LEW) strain and the outbred Sprague Dawley (SD) strain (Dhabar 1993). Interestingly, both F344 and SD rats charge increased basal CORT levels at the end of the inactive period, while LEW rats did not show a robust circadian rhythm (Dhabar 1993). As mentioned above, strain differences can also interact with age differences to further complicate the picture of a design HPA axis stress response across the lifespan.CHRONIC STRESS moving-picture show to chronic stress can result in long term elevations in GCs and has been shown to alter the structure and function of the brain regions involved in regulating the HPA axis as well as learning and memory and numerous other behaviors 7. Two general responses in HPA axis fun ction occur as a result of chronic stress, namely dependance and sensitization. Habituation typically occurs following repeated motion picture to the same (homotypic) wacky stressor, with the magnitude of the HPA axis response (i.e. CORT secretion) diminishing with each subsequent vulnerability to the stressor 45,46. On the other hand, repeated exposure to different (heterotypic) and aleatory stressors can diminish the habituation of the HPA axis response 47-49. Interestingly, both chronic homotypic and heterotypic unpredictable stressors cause sensitization of the HPA axis response to a novel stressor, resulting in increased ACTH and CORT secretion 45,48.The most frequently studied brain regions that are vulnerable to chronic stress are the HPC, amygdala (AMG) and PFC 50. In both the HPC and PFC, chronic constraint stress results in dendritic atrophy and decreased GR expression, which facilitates decreased HPA axis feedback and muffed memory 51-54,7. In addition, chronic st ress can also lead to altered hippocampal excitability, neurochemistry and neurogenesis (refs from Conrad 2010 suss out if needed?). On the other hand, chronic stress causes dendritic hypertrophy and increased CRH expression in the AMG as well as dendritic hypertrophy in the dorsolateral striatum (DLS), which facilitate HPA axis excitability and disturbance and habitual behavior, respectively 7,55-58.Sex, Age and Strain DifferencesSex differences in response to chronic stress exposure are less frequently examined. The above-named effects are well documented in males. However, chronic stress does not protrude to have the same effects in females. For example, females appear to be resilient against chronic stress induced dendritic atrophy in the HPC and spatial memory impairments 59-63. In the PFC, females exhibit dendritic hypertrophy, whereas males demonstrate dendritic atrophy in response to repeated stress exposure 64. In addition, chronic stress is associated with sex-specific PFC-mediated behavioral effects. chronically stressed males show impairments in recall of awe extinction, possibly reflecting decreased behavioral tractability 65-67. However, chronically stressed females demonstrate impaired memory for the acquisition of precaution conditioning, which is more dependent on the AMG 68-70. Interestingly, males show dendritic hypertrophy and increased activation of the AMG and an associated increase in the acquisition of fear conditioning following chronic stress 67. Thus, in females, chronic stress causes more reclaim morphological and behavioral way outs that may be related to sex-specific changes in AMG function.inveterate stress also has differential effects across the lifespan. In general, earlier exposure to chronic stress (i.e. prenatal and neonatal) have protracted and permanent effects compared to adult chronic stress. Exposing pregnant rat dams to chronic stress increases circulating CORT which crosses through the ordinatenta and re aches the developing fetus to alter brain development and HPA axis activity 71. The long-term effects of prenatal stress allow in increased basal and stress induced CORT secretion as well as learning impairments, increased anxiety- and depression-like behaviors and sensitivity to drugs of abuse 72,73. Postnatal stress is typically induced by disrupting the maternal-pup interactions (i.e., maternal separation or daily handling of pups). The long-term effects of early postnatal stress entangle altered anxiety-like behavior and stress-induced HPA axis activity in adulthood though the direction of these effects are varied and highly dependent on the age of the pup, as well as the type and duration of the manipulations 72,74,75. inveterate adolescent stress can result in enduring effects in adulthood, including decreased hippocampal volume, impaired spatial learning, and increased anxiety-like behavior adulthood 76-79. However, there is less evidence for adolescent stress exposure to result in depressive behaviors in adulthood 80,81. Studies of long digesting effects of adolescent stress exposure on HPA axis function are mixed, while most report no effect on basal or stress-induced CORT or ACTH secretion, some studies find increased basal and stress induced CORT secretion in adulthood 82,78,76,83,84. chronic stress exposure during adolescence can lead to long term behavioral and neuroendocrine effects, depending on the timing of exposure, the sex of the animal and the type of stressors used 82,84,85. In aged animals, chronic stress has differential effects compared to young or middle-aged adult rats. For example, following 3 weeks of chronic restraint stress in aged males and females, stress-induced sex differences were no longer evident on spatial and non-spatial memory tasks and chronic stress both facilitated or did not impair performance in aged male rats 86,87. In addition, in aged animals sex-specific effects of chronic stress are reversed 86,87. Furthe rmore, chronic stress in aged rats may potentiate stress-induced neurotoxicity, particularly in the HPC 72,88.Strain differences are also noted in the effects of chronic stress. Interestingly, and in line with acute stress strain differences, the inbred F344 strain do not demonstrate habituation of the plasma CORT response to chronic stress with a repeated homotypic stressor, while SD and LEW rat strains do 46. F344, but not SD and LEW, rats also exhibit adrenal gland hypertrophy after 3 sessions of restraint over 10 days 46. F344 rats also exhibit a lack of HPA axis habituation following 14 days of restraint compared to SD rats 89. Consistent with these findings, robust differences between SD and LEW rats were not found in either male or female rats in HPA axis response to an acute stressor after chronic exposure to unpredictable heteroptyic stressors 90.TYPES OF STRESSORSAcute Stressors (Figure 3 Equipment/Stressors)In addition to being a threat against homeostasis, stressors can be described as any event or environment that is novel, unpredictable, poses a threat to well-being or ego, or creates a sense of loss of control (Lupien 2007). Acute stressors are stressors which occur on a single role with varying durations. typically acute stressors last anywhere from 5 minutes to upwards of 6 hours, but in general for a period of time less than 24 hours. Acute stressors of longer durations are sometimes referred to as single prolonged stressors. Essentially the purpose of an acute stressor is for the data-based subject to mount a single stress response, or activation of the HPA axis. There are many different types of stressors and categorization of these stressors is attempted by many, though not all stress researchers agree. Stressors can vary in the type of perceived stress such as physical or psychological (or some combination of the two) as well as moth-eatenness and duration. Depending on the type of stressor used, differential effects on the HPA axis an d SNS responses will occur.Physical stressors are stressors that are predominantly identified or perceived through the senses or involuntary (autonomic) mechanisms. Examples of physical stressors accept extreme temperatures, loud noise, chemical exposure, extreme activity, metabolic or immune system disruptions, leech and pain. The most extreme physical stressors are necessarily limited to short durations due to discomfort. Many physical stressors can be administered in multiple ways or in combination with other stressors. To manipulate temperature, rodent subjects can be place in a standard heatless room (4-6C) or a hot room (30-40C) or in cold (18-20C) or hot water (25-35C) as part of a forced swim stressor (forced exercise) 91-93. Loud noises stressors are most effective at a range of 90-110 dB 94. Chemical stressors take exposure to ether vapors, hypoxic conditions, and injection of formalin or other noxious substances 93,95. Stressors involving extreme activity include forc ed swim and on the opposite end of the spectrum, immobilization, wherein the subject is splayed out on a board with all its limbs and head secured to interrupt movement. Metabolic disruptions can include fasting or food restriction, injections of insulin to induce hypoglycemia or lipopolysaccharide to induce an immune reaction. Hemorrhage or hypovolaemia is induced by removing a percentage of blood volume with a moderate hemorrhage consisting of removal of 20% estimated blood volume 96. Finally, pain can be induced via numerous methods. Frequently used stressors include track pinch with clothespins or hemostats. Another common stressor associated with pain is diffuse (Psychological stressors are perceived threats against homeostasis or well-being. Important qualities of psychological stressors include loss of control, unpredictability and novelty. Identification of psychological stressors can also be experience or species dependent, in that the anticipation of the event itself ca n be a stressor, even in the absence of the actual event. Psychological stressors may also induce fear, anxiety or other behavioral changes. The effectiveness of psychological stressors is primarily under the control of limbic brain regions such as the HPC, AMG and PFC 7. Several types of psychological stressors are used, including those that activate native and species-specific behaviors and fear, inescapable/uncontrollable stressors, and social stressors. Activation of innate fear (based on a threat to safety/survival) in rodents can be action with exposure to a predator (i.e. a cat or snake) or to a novel or unfamiliar environments particularly those with are open and brightly lit (i.e. open field or elevated incontrovertible maze). Inescapable and uncontrollable stressors include inescapable foot or tail shock, forced swim and restraint. Rodent restraint is the most frequently used and well-documented stressor. It can also be combined with other physical stressors such as be ing placed in a rotating platform or in combination with tail pinch. Interestingly, even animal handling can be categorized as this type a stressor.Social stressors make up their own entire subcategory. Many researchers believe that social stressors are the most translationally relevant because the primary source of stress in humans comes from social interactions, expectations and even trauma. Rats are by nature social animals, but too much or too little can suggest a stress response. Two of the least effortful social stressors are isolation ho exploitation and high density housing (i.e. crowding). Interestingly males show a greater stress response to crowding while females show a greater stress response to single (i.e. isolation) housing 98. A popular social stressor is social defeat, utilizing the occupant intruder paradigm. This paradigm consists of using aggressive male rats (i.e. retired breeders or reared in isolation without handling) as the resident rat. The experimental r at (i.e. the one which will mount a stress response) is the intruder and is placed in the home cage of the resident rat. Typically the rats are allowed contact with each other until the intruder demonstrates defeat behaviors (i.e. pliant supine posturing). In one modification of this paradigm, the intruder remains in the home cage of the resident rat but is separated, and therefore protect from physical harm, by a wire mesh enclosure 99,100. A novel socially based stressor that is less labor intensive is to place a male rat in the dirty cage of another(prenominal) male rat. Thus the male rat is in an inescapable rule of another male rat, without physical contact 101. degenerative Stress ParadigmsChronic stress is prolonged stress that typically occurs for at least 5 days, typically 1-3 weeks and sometimes up to 6 weeks or more. Many different types of chronic stress paradigms can be used, depending on the desired outcome measures. An additional inconstant to consider with chronic stress paradigms is the likelihood of habituation of the stress response over time, as mentioned above. Examples of chronic stress paradigms include chronic restraint, chronic mild stress, chronic unpredictable stress, chronic covariant stress, chronic social stress, and chronic intermittent stress.Chronic restraint stress and chronic mild stress have historically been the most frequently used chronic stress paradigms. Interestingly, these paradigms have different phenotypic outcomes. Chronic restraint stress is frequently carried out with daily 6 hour restraint sessions for 3 weeks (Conrad XXXX). However, because chronic restraint stress is repeated exposure to a single homotypic stressor, habituation of the stress response after the first few days likely occurs as evidenced by blunted CORT and ACTH release in response to restraint following fulfilment of the chronic restraint paradigm 102,103. This paradigm is well characterized with regard to spatial learning and memory defic its as well as altered dendritic morphology, particularly dendritic retraction in the hippocampus 104. Interestingly, spontaneous convalescence of both altered dendritic morphology and spatial learning and memory deficits has been observed 105. Chronic restraint stress also alters anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors, impairs response inhibition, facilitates fear learning and reduces motivation for food reward 106-108,53Chronic mild stress (CMS) is typically used to induce an anhedonic (i.e. depressive-like) phenotype 109. This paradigm typically involves exposure of the subjects to one mild stressor a day, typically for 6-8 weeks 109,110. Stressors are administered on a restore weekly schedule and include wet bedding, cage tilt, mild footshock, alterations in the light-dark cycle, food/water deprivation and cage changes 109,110. Anhedonic effects of CMS, which can last up to 3 months, include decreased sucrose consumption, increased door for intracranial self-stimulation and d ecreased locomotor activity in the absence an anxiety-like phenotype 109. Chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) is essentially an iteration of CMS, which lasts for a shorter period of time (2 weeks) and presents mild to moderate stressors once a day in a more randomized order and time of day 111,112. Depressive-like phenotypes are seen after CUS exposure in addition to anxiety-like phenotypes and cognitive deficits 112,91. Chronic variable stress (CVS) is yet another more severe iteration of a repeated administration of heterotypic stressors. More recently, CVS paradigms have differentiated themselves from CMS paradig

Social Construction of Female Gangs

Social Construction of feminine administratesIntroductionIn the UK, in that respect has been re wholly in ally bantam look into on pistillate multitude fuss which has led to the vast amount of investigate from the USA being employ to the UK situation. womanish crowds suck up been in outlas hug drugce throughout history although real little has been said or so its appendages beyond their role as inner objects. Hallsworth and early on (2008)176) fol lowlying a home office report in 2008 state that the conspiracy was for the first time explicitly linked to the fuss of urban wildness and rising weapon use in the UK (2008176) and check to Campbell (1990) girlfriends countenance been a part of bands since the earliest accounts from New York in the beforehand(predicate) 1800s (1990166). Fe phallic work party occupation has been on the increase in the latter(prenominal) half of the twentieth centimeury and as such, these activities strike increasingly induc e violent. In this study, I will elaborate on the meaning of halos and feminine coteries using unlike comments knock overn by key authors. My main c ar in this paper will be to discuss the historical compass of womanly gangs and the key debates surrounding these gangs in congener to the literary productions write by authors of different calibers and in like manner the myths as portrayed by the society. I will excessively be interested in discussing the media look of egg-producing(prenominal) gangs giving examples which will lead me to explore the disjunctionion between what the media says roughwhat four-year-old-bearing(prenominal) gangs and what the reality is.The term gang accord to Schneider and Tilley (2004) does non gestate a single definition even out though it is used universally by researchers, police, social workers, media and the general public (2004 xviii). The US National abominable Justice Reference Service stool defined the term gang as a gr oup of three or to a greater extent pack who induce a common name or sign and assimilate an aim of engaging in criminal activity. In the UK mount, experts see shew it difficult to reach a consensus on whether or non gangs equal and how they john be defined (Aldridge and Medina, 2008 Alexander, 2008 Broadhurst et al., 2009 Hallsworth and Silverstone, 2009 Her Majestys Inspectorate of Prisons, 2010 Pickles, 2009 Pitts, 2008). Websters Dictionary (1961) gives us an another(prenominal) definition stating that a gang is a band or group of persons who refer themselves in criminal or socially unacceptable behavior (196174). Fe potent gang is simply a girl group or individuals who argon involved in criminal activities and shargon the alike(p) names, symbols and signs as their identity. Fe phallic gangs do not view as a visible leader and according to research that they tend to be fairly informal and they do not often provoke a visible leader. Campbell for example in the Huffs disk on annuluss in America (1990) observes that in Los Angeles somewhat gangs have veterinas or godmothers but she goes on to say that typically the members insist at that place is no leader and that decisions argon made democratically. Campbells observation suggests that some girls clearly have more than clout than others, but that this usually is not formalized as a leadership role. (1990 178).In this review, I will discuss just about fe anthropoid person gangs drawing upon Ameri burn research but with more furiousness on the rising phenomenon of egg-producing(prenominal) person gangs in Britain. In order to arrive at my aim for this lit review, I will use primary sources, some secondary sources and other policy documents or government publications to enable me stag conclusions and recommendations, calling gaps in knowledge which may inspire other researchers into ideas for further research and similarly enable me to give my general opinion of how I detect about the social construction of egg-producing(prenominal) gangs by the media much of which I tend to dis equate with.Literature ReviewHistorical Background more researchers and journalists have for a immense time assumed that girls and women did not pose part in criminal behaviors and in that respectfore the issue of pistillate gang has often been ignore. Campbells (1990) review on girl gangs states that, girls were defined solely in terms of their relations to male gang members (1990166). Men have everlastingly been the point of concentration in investigating gang abuses and until upstart-fangledly, feminine gang members were seen as sex objects or tomboys. Literature has shown that researchers describe young-bearing(prenominal) gangs as weapon carriers for the male counterparts in addition, Moore and Hagedorn (2001) argue that even when describing female gang members as tomboys, researchers emphasized that the females motivations were focused on males (2001 2). Looking at the U K context of female gangs, literature on girls and gangs has not been well developed because researchers in Britain have not seen the need to concentrate on female gangs (Campbell and Muncer, 1989 Sanders, 2002). accord to Downes (1966) Parker (1974) and Scott (1956), the UK well-tried to apply American gang theories to address the riddle of highway gangs but these attempts failed over time leading to lack of data on gangs. This ex evidentlys why there is no sound differentiate as in the case of USA, for the proliferation of violent street gangs (Hallsworth and Young, 2008 177).Female Involvement is not a new detail universally. In accompaniment, there has been a lot of bear upon on the rise of female involvement in gang commerce over the years. Early studies ensn be that there was a 50 percentage increase in serious horrors by teenage gins between 1968 and 1974, comp bed to a 10 percent increase for boys and arrests of girls under 18 for violent crimes bloom 393 percen t between 1960 and 1978, comp atomic number 18d to 82 percent for boys (CASA Website) . miller (2001) comp atomic number 18d younker gang involvement in 1950, and found out that youth gangs of the 1980s and mid-nineties are more numerous, more prevalent, and more violent than in the 1950s, in all probability more than at any time in the countrys history (2001 263). In the early 1980s, Anne Campbell (1981) became interested and had concerns about female offenders which led her to conduct an probe about the occurrences of furiousness amongst girls in Britain. Campbell, (1984) also did an investigation on female gangs in America and this led to her conclusions that the problem of female gangs was socially constructed. She criticized Britain for plainly concentrating on male gangs and ignoring female gangs and illustrated that in New York, women were very unbelievable to organize in to gangs in turgid numbers because the female groups were whole known to follow male groups (Ca mpbell, 1995). Recent studies on girls and violence also shows that there has been an increase in violent and competitive behaviour by girls and this has been catalyzed by media attention. Earlier on, people knew very little about girls violence because there was a belief that violence was solely committed by men. The study harnessings show very little evidence suggesting that girls are physically violent.MembershipAcademic research on gang rank in the UK is very sparse as mentioned earlier on and there is little evidence showing that new-fangled women have existential figure in committing violence. It has been difficult to ascertain the numbers of female gangs although there is a profound existence of the members. On the other hand, in the US, feminist researchers have tried to provide a more nuanced portrayal of the complex gender experiences of girls in gangs (Miller, 2001 16). They have demonstrated that girls involvement in female gangs meets their gender expectations and experience heightened risks for physical and sexual victimization and also ascertains that gang membership provides them with a sense of belonging, giving them confidence and refuge from their abusive families (Campbell, 1990 Joe and Chesney-Lind, 1995 Joe Laidler and Hunt, 2001 Miller, 2001, 2008 Moore, 1991 Nurge, 2003). Many gangs break through to be more highly structured than delinquent groups but that does not disqualify the fact that they may still be seen as broadly speaking organized. Several factors such as age, neighborhoods and so on are considered as the basis of gaining entry to these gangs or becoming a member. The gang sizes project from a member group of four or five and can go beyond a thousand. in that respect have been different miscellanea of gang groups such as the leaders, associates of the fifty-fiftys then there are the peripheral members and finally the recruits.Most studies have shown that the reasons why females marijuana cigarette gangs are becaus e of association influence, it is seen as a form of solidarity and self affirmation. Research has indicated that those kids who grow up in dysfunctional families and whose parents are in prison may find it appropriate to join gang groups. Many youth gang plastic is as a result of the present deteriorating sparing conditions which are characterized by poor housing, lack of school structures and facilities and lack of laws that regulate violation of youth gangs. Being in a female gang may be a refuge from physical and sexual abuse at home. Young et al.s (2007) was involved in a research which directly involved girls and spring chicken women who had association with female gang and this gave him a different film of their involvement. UK studies of female gangs have indicated that girls and early solar days women are just portrayed as girlfriends to their male gang members but Young et als involvement in interviewing some of the females indicated that their groups were mainly co mposed of peers whose main reason for being to stickher was plain friendship and denied that their groups were gangs.However in the US, Miller (2001) states that younker womens group governance was through friendships from school, their house neighborhoods and not through any initiation rites to join these groups. Evidence uncovered by Young et al. (2007) stated that all the female groups interviewed referred to each other as their mates. Seven young women belonged to all-female groups and although they would finaleically go to about with the local young men, this was not because these relationships with males were considered to be definitive or necessary. Indeed, from their testimonies it was evident that these women did not consider the males about them as friends or even friendly, nor did this group enter into intimate relationships with the young men they associated with. These young women set(p) when they associated with the males in their social circle and were not sign ificantly influenced by the actions of males or male-dominated groups (Young et al., 2007 143).A study conducted by Pitts in 2007 considers female membership in gangs as Reluctant Gangsters Youth Gangs in Waltham Forest (Pitts, 2007). According to Pitts (2007), young women in gangs are often sexually exploited, sometimes in shift for drugs and the relationships (they have with male members) tend to be abusive one of authority and submission and also some senior gang members pass their girlfriends around to lower ranking members and sometimes to the whole group at the alike time (2007 39). Pitts (2007) study states that the reason why young women, or girlfriends, are attracted to the gangs is mainly because they believe they can be glamorous or survive celebrities within the group. It is unclear how members of female gangs are able to maintain long term roles and proper(postnominal) position given that the shopping centre members decide on the primary roles of the gang groups. Some members join the groups for a short period and others may move on to other gang groups after a certain period of time but in all these groups, the core members still remain in charge of the criminal activities.StatisticsThe most widely used data on female gangs has been from the nationwide espouses of law enforcement agencies. Miller (1975) stated that a survey conducted in the mid-1970s indicated that 10 percent of all gang members were estimated to be female and according to Spergel (1995), a national survey found that in 1992 only 3.7 percent of all gang members were female. This was cod to the fact that 32 percent of the surveyed jurisdictions did not, as a matter of policy, identify females as gang members (Curry and Decker, 1998 98). Four years later in 1996 there was an estimate that 11 percent and then 1998, 8 percent of all gangs were female (Moore and Terrett, 1998 National Youth Gang Center, 2000). It is noted that it is in grim cities and rural areas where femal e gangs are more likely to be found and their ethnicities vary by regions (National Youth Gang Center, 2000). In 2003 the Channel 4 documentary Dispatches emphasized that the gang problem was increasingly spreading in the UK and as umpteen as 30,000 gangs were functional and 57 percent include female members (Thompson, 2003).The Metropolitan Police Service (MPS, 2005) released the most recent figures with findings that there were 174 street gangs in London. In 2006 the MPS figures showed that there was a 66.6 per cent increase in gang membership raising the number of UK gangs to 50,000 of which 2500 of the bring number were young women (MPS, 2006). The United States gang numbers according to recent police estimates indicate that there are 27,000 gangs with approximately 788,000 members (National Youth Gang Survey, 2007). According to these reports, there was a 25% increase in the inform numbers of gang and gang problems since the year 2001 where there was a low report on gang pro blems (National Gang Center, 2009). Curry, Fox, Ball, Stone (1992) and National Gang Center (2009) reported that in 2007 there were gang problems in double cities, 86% more than what was reported in 1983 which was at 50% when the gang problem was just beginning to grow.Media construction of female gangsMedia representations on gangs and more specifically female gangs have played a very big role in informing the social reality by a social constructionist perspective. In the late(prenominal) two decades, gang crime activities have dominated the crime news and the quality of life among rural and urban dwellers has been eroded also, violent young females have been presented as a new and growing social problem(Batchelor, 2009408). According to Batchelor (2009) girls have been perceived to be the same as boys especially in fighting to defend themselves (2009400). Batchelor continues to argue that young women who involve themselves in male gangs have been used as carriers of weapons and drugs and in some cases the girls have been exploited sexually. News in the media has claimed that young women have acted as the heads of anti-social youth groups who commit crimes like rape, murder and violent looting (Young, 2009).Many newspapers produce stories with an aim of attracting peoples attention and informing them on what they trust the public want to read about then devising a lot of sales on the papers. The medias main interest had been to enhance its economic aspect by manipulating the public way of thinking about crime and its social context (Potter and Kappeler 1998). The main contribution of the media has been according to Best (1993119), a contextual constructionism of gangs where the media makes certain choices of what to cover in the news which contributes to the social construction of the reality. Crime narratives and representations are, and have always been, a prominent part of the essence of all mass media( Reiner, 2007305), with sources such as newspap ers and video documentaries playing a central role in creating public perceptions of crime and therefore influencing their perceptions about the extent of crime and the risk of suffering it (Treadwell, 200677).Media reports especially in the UK have not been tolerateed up by concrete evidence on the wider female gang problems. The Centre for Social Justice (2009) states that media coverage has, at times, been suggestive of an epidemic in gang- assortd youth violence (200919). In the UK, television headlines and documentaries relating to gang violence and the coming up of girl gangs has been dominant and that has not been different in the case of USA where it has been reported that gang groups are armed, dangerous and prepared to kill (Hallsworth and Young, 2008176). Despite the fact that gangs and gang activity has been seen as a social problem to society and despite the regular convictions from the news that has shaped such problems, a comprehensive and systematic synopsis of ne wspaper coverage of gangs and societys war on gangs has not been undertaken. There have been extraordinary cases of female violence reported. For example the reported case of a frenzied attack of eight strangers which was enacted by Chelsea OMahoney, who was the only female member of Sergeant Crew, in conjunction with her male friends (Laville, 2005). This case signifies that there are existing modern girl gang members who offend the law. The press gave an cast that made the public perceive the girl involved as militant and one capable of extreme behaviour, a trouble maker who causes carnage in and out of her group and catalyses others to be involved in aggressive behaviour (Thompson ,2003).In the next section, I will analyze the literature review and the medias perception towards female gangs. I will explore the reading given in order to see if there is a disconnect between what the media says and what the reality is about female gangs. This will aid me in making proper conclus ion about the media construction of female gangs. compendIt has been argued that reports on female gangs offending the law is very low compared to male offenders and noted that female violence is a relatively rare occurrence according to crime statistics. Various authors like Campbell (1995) have stated that Britain for umpteen years had not developed any research on female gangs whereas in New York, female groups were only seen as followers of their male counterparts and could not possibly form gang groups to organize crimes. On the other hand, the press has had much to write on the papers and commentate in news about girl gangsters especially in the last ten years. According to Tara (2009) there have been news reports contending that young women are traditionally engaged in violent crimes. Reports have in excess claimed that many anti-social youth groups are now headed by young women and they commit crime such us rape, murder and robbery. Honigsbaum (2006) states that young women in the UK are cited to be amongst the most violent and aggressive in the world. It is clear that there have been a few empirical studies on female gang membership especially in the UK although the media coverage of violent offences committed by young women has created a certain perception towards the girl gangsters. This construction of female gangs has also been through the statistical evidence that has been provided by officials from the law enforcement department.Comparing the literature on female gangs and what the media has had to say about this topic, it is evident that there have been gaps in research on female participation in gangs in the UK which is the same case as the American gang literature where else, the media has been triple-crown in socially constructing the girl gangs even though its evidence is very scant. Over the years, most researchers have concentrated on investigating the male gangs, studying the criminal behaviour of men and ignoring the female counterpar ts. According to Pitts (2007), the female gangs have not been recognized or in some cases, research has been conducted in reference to the experience of men. In reality, female gangs have been in existence for decades but it has been difficult to come up with the truthful picture of the problem. In the case of UK, there have been claims that currently young women are more likely to engage in street gangs and these women are more likely to engage in serious violent crime. This information is not substantial because the media seems to exaggerate this kind of violent crime thus shaping the public perceptions of gangs. There is a problem of statistic as well.It has been noted that female gangs exist in larger cities but there is no evidence to suggest that female crime is a national problem, therefore the true problem cannot be identified. Unrealistic public attitudes towards girls gangs have been the order of the day because there has been misrepresentation of girls lives and this acc ording to Batchelor (2001) has created a misdirected public policy. The media has been fond of relying on simple statistics and typical gang cases that have no evidence and this has multiform the discussions of complex socio-specific contexts of violence in girls lives (Batchelor, 2001). Young womens genuine problems continue to be marginalized and ignored as the media continues to give wrong information to the public thus making the girls become a problem. Batchelor (2005) Coy (2008) suggest that it is important that any steps taken to address problems of gang involvement by young women should be from the reality and should be able to acknowledge the young women are active agents and victims.As I have discussed above ,most of the violence that is go through by girls and young women, as both perpetrators and victims, takes place within any the family or their friendship group. This means that social work and probation practitioners need to give careful attention to the familial a nd peer contexts of young womens offending, putting in mind that both groups can be concurrently harmful and protective. (Batchelor, 2005) argues that if we are to working towards effecting change in young women offenders lives, we need to maximize on their involvement and participation in various positive activities. These activities should enable them relate well with their families and friends and also the social work teams in order to have positive relations. There is need for accessible and affordable leisure activities which can be effective in occupying the girls and young womens minds and address some specific needs like bullying and victimization.It could be argued that research in to the phenomena of the girl gang especially in the UK is barely adequate thus making it difficult to make quantifying conclusion of the girl gang problem. Much of this essay clearly states that crime statistics show that compared to male offending female violence is a relatively rare occurrence (Young, 2009224), and any rise in female violence may not always be gang related. I will conclude this essay by indicating that a lot of information represented by the media is just assumptions with no evidence to back it and researchers can do more towards looking more into the problem.ConclusionThere seems to be no concrete theory as to why girls of women evolve involved in violent crimes but there have been various factors that have been cited to have played a major role in influencing them to join gang activities. Parental negligence, poverty, teenage pregnancies, lack of education, ill health, early involvement in sexual activities and peer group influence are some of the factors that drive these girls and women into gangs. Researchers, the law enforcement system, school, community based programmes and families have ignored the fact that female gangs exist and have confined young female to victimization and this has resulted to the rise of female violence. This essay has cons idered the background information of female gangs, the definition of gang and female gang, the key debates surrounding these gangs in relation to literature pen, also the media construction of female gangs and the myths as portrayed by the society.It is argued that many researchers have ignored females as gangs and the notion seems to be that female gangs and their members are pale imitations of male gangs (Spergel, 1995 90). Due to lack of research, facts that have been written and reproduced in books about female gangs are based on journalists and probation officers reports and also the statements given by the male gang members. Looking at the past and current research on female gangs, it is clear that they do exist in the UK and the USA although the statistics given are socially constructed due to the fact that the gang related cases are underreported. Reliable statistics may show that the problem of female gangs is not as large as the media portrays it to be and with the media catalyzing the problem, it may have negative consequences such as labeling to girls and young women. Media reports fuelling a righteous panic can also have an impact on how the community and the government responds to female gangs thus failing to tackle the needs of these female groups.I will conclude by saying that it would be important for researchers to further explore the problem of female gangs because I completely agree that they exist and need attention otherwise the problem will get out of hand if ignored. The media should stop exaggerating facts on female gangs and concentrate on finding out the true picture of these gangs.

Major battles of crusades

Major betrothals of crusadesThe three major(ip)(ip) battles of the crusades are the beleaguerings of Antioch, Sidon, and Acre.This essay will explain the three major battles and its results. The battle of Antiochwas during the set-back crusade and was fought all over the urban center of Antioch. Second is the siegeof Sidon during the Norwegian crusade. Finally is the siege of Acre where the social reformerstry to gain control of Jerusalem.The first major battle is the battle of Antioch. This siege occurred in the firstcrusade. The major leading of this crusade were Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemund ofTaranto, and Raymond IV of Toulhouse. The major leaders of the Seljuk Turks wereYaghi Siyan, Kerbogha, and Toghtekin. The weightliftrs arrived just removed the city ofAntioch at the Orontes River. Shortly after this the army under Duqaq of capital of Syriaarrived. These armies attacked the crusaders and came to aid and relieve the city ofAntioch. to a fault one of the major crusad er leaders became sick and on that point was a earthquake.Not to mention there was also a great famine, and many of the crusaders were starving.Next in may 1908 a Seljuk Turk army approached under a Muslim named Kerbogha. slice the Muslim approached the crusader army became desperate. So Bohemund acrusader leader came into contact with Fiouz a Seljuk Turk inside the city to convincehim to collapse the gates. Fiouz told Bohemund to plan a siege at night and to scale the citieswalls and he would open the gates. The crusaders did exactly what he said and he kept neat to his word and opened the gates. As a massacre occurred the crusaders gainedcontrol over the city.Finally, is the second siege even though the crusaders had most of the controlover the city the Muslim army under Kerbogha had just arrived. The Seljuk Turks organize there own siege over the city. The crusaders decided to come emerge of the city andface the advancing armies. Kerbogha thought his army outnumbered the crus aders but asthey started to fire armies retreated therefore the Crusaders actually outnumbered theTurks. Seeing this the Muslims retreated and the Crusaders won.The core of the first crusade was the Norwegian Crusade in which the siegeof Sidon took place. The leaders of the Norwegian Crusade were Sigurd the Norwegianking and Baldwin I of Jerusalem. Today Sidon is Lebanon. Also Skulason gives a validdescription of the battle. The Norsemens king, the skalds relate, Has taen the heathentown of Saetthe slinging locomotive engine with dread noise Gables and roofs with stones destroys.The town wall totters too,-it falls The Norsemen mount the calamitous walls. He whostains red the ravens bill, has won,-the town lies at his will. The way the Crusadersattacked the city was the Norwegians attacked by sea and Baldwins army attacked byland. The city of Sidon fell to the Crusaders after solitary(prenominal) forty-seven days.Last of all, is the Third crusade. This Crusade includes the two ye ar siege of Acrethe seaport of Jerusalem. The commanders on the crusaders side are Richard, Phillip, khat, Robert, and Gerard. The commanders of the opposing army were Saladin. objet dart thecrusaders were running into problems Saladin was unifying the Muslim world. At thebattle of Hattin Saladin determinedly defeat the Crusaders. Now the Crusaders onlycontrolled Tyre, Tripoli, and Antioch. After Europe found out the spillage of Jerusalem therewas an order for a new crusade. Then Guy led his army outside the city of Acre. Wherehe set up camp and waited for reinforcements. Saladin moved to the east to confront theCrusader army. As they fought the Crusaders befuddled only ten thousand men. Even thoughSaladins army part won they could not afford to push the crusaders back more with other battle.In conclusion, those were the results of the three sieges. The three major pointsare the siege of Antioch, Sidon and Acre. The first Siege which was the siege of Antioch.The Crusaders succe ssfully captured the city of Antioch. Second is the NorwegianCrusade in the attempt to capture the city of Sidon which was successfully done in justforty-seven days. Lastly, The third crusade during this time they tried to captured the cityof Acre. Even though there attempts to capture the city fell the save succeeded a little.